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THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

DAVIS 

GIFT  OF 
ROBERT  I.   TEMEY 


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MINERAL  AND    AERATED    WATERS 


. 

MINERAL  AND 
AERATED  WATERS 


BY 

C.   AINSWORTH    MITCHELL, 

B.A.  (OxoN.),  F.I.C. 


NEW   YORK 

D.    VAN    NOSTRAND    CO. 
TWENTY-FIVE  PARK  PLACE 

£63.6 

MBRAKT 

OHIVERSITY  OF  CAUFQRinX 
DAVIS 


TO 

WALTER  WILLIAM    FISHER, 

M.A.    (OXON.),    1M.C., 

ALDRICHJAN    DEMONSTRATOR    IN    THK    UNIVERSITY    OF    OXFORD. 

PROM 

HIS    PUPIL. 


PREFACE 

IN  this  book  I  have  endeavoured  to  give  an  outline  of  the 
early  methods  of  making  artificial  mineral  waters,  and  to  trace 
the  gradual  evolution  of  the  primitive  forms  of  apparatus 
first  invented  into  the  carbonating  plant  of  the  present  day. 

During  the  eighteenth  century  so  much  attention  was  given 
to  the  subject  in  the  scientific  journals  of  that  time  that  it  is 
possible  to  trace  the  beginnings  of  the  mineral-water  industry 
with  much  more  detail  than  can  be  done  in  the  case  of  many 
other  industries. 

Descriptions  of  aerating  processes  and  diagrams  of  apparatus 
are  to  be  found  in  many  unexpected  places,  and  I  wish  to 
acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  Mr.  William  Kirkby's 
"  Evolution  of  Artificial  Mineral  Waters  "  for  several  sources 
of  information  that  would  otherwise  have  escaped  my  notice. 

My  best  thanks  are  also  due  to  Mr.  Kirkby  for  his  permission 
to  make  use  of  the  description  and  diagram  of  Withering' s 
apparatus,  and  to  Mr.  A.  Chaston  Chapman,  who  has  kindly 
supplied  me  with  photographs  of  the  wild  yeasts  illustrated  in 
Chapter  X. 

I  would  also  thank  the  different  manufacturers  of  modern 
plant  who  have  placed  photographs  and  descriptions  of  their 
machines  at  my  disposal  and  have  given  me  every  assistance 
in  their  power.  Among  them  I  may  mention  Messrs.  W.  J. 
Fraser  &  Co.,  of  Dagenham,  Messrs.  Hall  &  Co.,  The  Biley 
Manufacturing  Company,  Messrs.  Wickham  &  Co.,  of  Ware,  and, 
in  particular,  Messrs.  Hayward-Tyler  &  Co.,  who  have  been  at 
great  trouble  to  obtain  for  me  descriptions  and  illustrations 
of  the  machines  made  by  their  firm  in  the  early  part  of  last 
century. 


viii  PREFACE 

Messrs.  Ingram  and  Royle  have  kindly  allowed  me  to  quote 
analyses  from  their  compilation  on  natural  mineral  waters, 
and  the  Apollinaris  Company  have  supplied  me  with  infor- 
mation about  their  spring  and  with  photographs  of  their  works. 
To  both  these  firms  I  tender  my  thanks  for  their  assistance. 

C.  A.  M. 

WHITE  COTTAGE, 

AMERSHAM  COMMON, 
BUCKS. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I. 

PAGE 

Origin    and    Properties    of    Natural    Mineral    Waters — Gases    in 

Natural  Waters — Holy  Wells — The  Zem-Zem  Well  at  Mecca         1 

CHAPTER    II. 

Spas  and  their  Springs     ........          9 

CHAPTER    III. 
Natural  Mineral  Table  Waters  .          .          .          .          .          .27 

CHAPTER    IV. 

Thermal  Springs  and  Radio-activity — Temperatures — Helium 
and  Niton  in  Mineral  Waters — Measurement  of  Radio- 
activity— Artificial  Radio-active  Mineral  Waters  .  .  35 

CHAPTER   V. 

Carbon  Dioxide — Its  Preparation,   Properties   and   Uses  in  the 

Mineral  Water  Factory     .......        44 

CHAPTER   VI. 
Artificial  Mineral  Waters          .......        64 

CHAPTER   VII. 
Early  Forms  of  Carbonating  Apparatus     .          .  .84 

CHAPTER   VIII. 

The  Machinery  of  To-day — The  Pump — Generators — Gas  Tubes 
— Soda  Water  Machines — Combined  Cooling,  etc. — Condensers 
— Soda  Water  Bottling  Machinery — Arrangement  of  a  Soda 
Water  Factory  ....  128 

CHAPTER   IX. 
Bottles  and  Bottling  Machinery  .      148 


x  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER    X. 

PAGE 

The  Making  of  Ginger  Beer      ...  .      179 

CHAPTER    XI. 

Examination  of  Mineral  Waters  :  General  Characteristics — The 
Pressure — Metallic  Contamination — Bacterioscopic  Examina- 
tion— Injurious  Fermentations — Ropiness — Preservatives  and 
Colouring  Matters  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .193 

BIBLIOGRAPHY  .  .          .  .      i>!7 

INDEX  221 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE 

1.  Tin  Bottle  of  Holy  Water  from  Mecca 

2.  Plan  of  Tunbridge  Wells  in  1720  .  10 

3.  Plan  of  Pyrmont  in  1712           .  .18 

4.  General  View  of  the  Works  at  the  Apollinaris  Spring  .  .  28 

5.  Labelling  Hall  at  the  Apollinaris  Spring     ....  30 

6.  Henrich's  Apparatus  for  Measuring  Radio-activity      .  .  40 

7.  Faraday's  Tube  for  Liquefying  Carbon  Dioxide            .  .  50 

8.  Thilorier's  Apparatus  for  Liquefying  Carbon  Dioxide  .  .  52 

9.  Eraser's    Apparatus    for    Collecting    Carbon    Dioxide  from 

Fermenting  Tuns  .......        54 

10.  Fraser's    Apparatus   for    Collecting    Carbon    Dioxide   from 

Closed  Fermenting  Vessel      ......        55 

11.  Hall's  Plant  for  Collecting  Carbon  Dioxide  from  Fermenta- 

tions :     The  Compressor         ....  .56 

12.  Hall's  Plant  for  Collecting  Carbon  Dioxide  from  Fermenta- 

tions :    The  Condenser,  Purifier  and  Bottling  Apparatus  .        57 

13.  Diagrammatic  Section  of  Hall's  Refrigerating  Machine         .        58 

14.  Hall's   Vertical    Combined   Land   Type    C02    Refrigerating 

Machine      .......  .59 

15.  Diagram  illustrating  the  Construction  of  Hall's  Land  Type 

Machine .60 

16.  Hall's    Refrigerating   Machine   installed   in   Mineral   Water 

Factory       .........  61 

17.  Diagram  illustrating  the  Construction  of  Pressure  Gauge      .  62 

18.  The  "  German  Spa "  at  Brighton       .  .  79 

19.  Preparation  of  Artificial  Mineral  Waters  in  Struve's  Dresden 

Establishment,  1853     .  .80 

20.  Cavendish's  Apparatus  for  Estimating  Carbon  Dioxide  in 

Water 84 

21.  Bergman's  Impregnating  Apparatus,  1770  ...        85 

22.  Priestley's  Original  Apparatus,  1772 86 

23.  Priestley's  Modified  Apparatus,  1772  .        87 

24.  Lavoisier's  Devices  for  Regulating  an  Acid  Supply      .          .        88 

25.  Nooth's  Apparatus,  1775  .          .  .  .89 

26.  Valve  in  Nooth's  Apparatus      .....          .        89 

27.  Withering's  Apparatus     .          .          .          .          .          .          .91 

28.  Duchanoy's  Carbonating  Apparatus,  1780  ...        92 

29.  Henry's  Aerating  Apparatus,  1781 92 


xii  LIST   OF   ILLUSTEATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

30.  Haygarth's  Impregnating  Machine,  1781    .          .          .          .94 

31.  Carbonating  Plant  used  in  London  in  1825          ...        95 

32.  Watt's  Hydraulic  Bellows 97 

33.  Lavoisier's  Gasometer,  1789      ......        99 

34.  Lavoisier's  Pump,  1774    ......  .      100 

35.  Planche's  Compressor,  1811       ....  .      101 

36.  Planche's  Apparatus  with  Wooden  Agitator        .          .          .102 

37.  Old  English  Wooden  Carbonating  Cylinder          .          .          .      104 

38.  Old  German  Carbonating  Plant          .....      106 

39.  Struve's  Carbonating  Plant,  1823       ...  .      107 

40.  Double  Cylinder  Carbonating  Machine        ....      109 

41.  Bakewell's  Apparatus,  1832      .  .111 

42.  Savaresse's  Carbonating  Machine,  1838       .          .          .          .113 

43.  Section  of  a  Mondollot  Apparatus      .          .          .          .          .115 

44.  Hamilton's  Continuous  Process  Machine,  1814    .          .          .117 

45.  Bramah's  Original  Machine       .          .          .          .          .          .119 

46.  Hay  ward -Tyler's  Earliest  Continuous  Machine    .          .          .      121 

47.  Hay  ward -Tyler's  Beam- Action  Machine     .          .          .          .  "    122 

48.  Early  French  Continuous  Plant          .          .          .          .          .123 

49.  Early  French  Gasometer  .          .          .          .          .          .124 

50.  Matthews'  Vertical  Generator  .          .          .          .          .          .126 

51.  Twin  Carbonating  Cylinders      .          .          .          .          .          .129 

52.  Upright  Generator  ...  .130 

53.  Horizontal  Generator       .          .          .          .          .          .          .131 

54.  Automatic  Device  for  regulating  the  Supply  of  Acid    .          .132 

55.  The  Kiley  "  Safety  "  Generator 133 

56.  Hayward-Tyler's  New  Pattern  AA1  Machine       .          .          .      136 

57.  Plunger  Pump 137 

58.  Bucket  Pump .137 

59.  Hayward-Tyler's  New  Pattern  Pump          .          .  .      138 

60.  Gunmetal  Horizontal  Cylinder  .          .          .          .          .          .139 

61.  The  "  Kiley  "  Patent  Soda  Water  Pump  and  Cylinder          .      140 

62.  The  "  Riley  "  Patent  Double  Soda  Water  Pump  and  Cylinder     141 

63.  Hayward-Tyler's  "  Aerate-Cool  "  Machine  .          .          .143 

64.  Horizontal  Machine  for  Use  with  Tubes  of  Liquefied  Gas        .      144 

65.  Vertical  Machine  for  Use  with  Tubes  of  Liquefied  Gas          .      145 

66.  General  Arrangement  of  Mineral  Water  Factory  .          .146 

67.  Briggs'  Bottling  Machine,  1830  ...  .      149 

68.  Hayward-Tyler's  Early  Bottling  Machine  ....      150 

69.  Savaresse's  Bottling  Machine,  1838    .          .          .  .151 

70.  Macdonell's  Automatic  Corking  Machine    .          .          .          .152 

71.  Howard's  Patent  Wiring  Machine      .          .          .          .          .153 

72.  Codd's  Patent  Bottle  Stopper   .  .      153 

73.  Swing-Filling  Machine  for  Codd's  Bottles  .          .          .          .154 

74.  Power-Filling  Machine  for  Codd's  Bottles  .  .155 

75.  Lament's  Patent  Bottle  and  Stopper          .          .          .          .156 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTKATIONS  xiii 

FIG.  PAGE 

76.  The  "  Riley  '   Patent  Screw  Stopper  .      157 

77.  Riley  Screw-Stopper  Machines  at  Work      ....      158 

78.  "  Crown  Cork  " 159 

79.  "  Crown  Cork  "  in  Position  on  the  Bottle  ....      159 

80.  Automatic  Machine  for  "  Crown  Corks  "    .          .          .          .160 

81.  Clasp  Stopper 161 

82.  The  "  Riley  "  Automatic  Rotary  Filling  Machine         .          .      162 

83.  Scott's  Patent  "  Thistle  "  Filler 165 

84.  Savaresse's  Syphon  Tube,  1838 167 

85.  Savaresse's  Syphon  .......      167 

86.  Mechanism  of  Syphon  with  Long  Lever      ....      168 

87.  Mechanism  of  Syphon  with  Short  Lever     ....      168 

88.  Early  Syphon -Filling  Machine 169 

89.  Hayward-Tyler's  Syphon-Filling  Machine  ....      170 

90.  Ferguson's  Double  Syphon  Filler       .          .          .          .          .171 

91.  Counter  Pressure  Chamber        .          .          .          .          .          .172 

92.  Portable  Cylinder  or  ;'  Fountain  "     .          .          .          .          .173 

93.  Wickham's  Washing  Machine  .          .          .          .          .          .174 

94.  Wickham's  Patent  Revolving  Rinser  .          .  .174 

95.  Wickham's  Patent  Rinser  with  Bottle  in  Position        .          .175 

96.  Old-Fashioned  Type  of  Rinser 175 

97.  Hayward-Tyler's  "  Automatic  "  Upright  Washing  Machine.      176 

98.  Riley's  "  Wheel  "  Washing  Machine  ....      177 

99.  Riley's  Turbine  Brusher 178 

100.  Riley's  Ginger  Beer  Brewing  Plant    .  .      180 

101.  Saccharomyces  anomalus  .          .          .          .          .          .          .183 

102.  8.  apiculatus  (Schweitz) 183 

103.  8.  apiculatus  (Schweitz)   .  .  .184 

104.  Steam  Coil  in  Ginger  Beer  Infusion  Tank  .  .      186 

105.  Vertical  Refrigerator        .          .          .          .          .          .          .187 

106.  Horizontal  Refrigerator 188 

107.  Apparatus  for  Filling  Casks  with  Ginger  Beer     .          .          .189 

108.  Riley's  Filling  Machine    ...  ...      190 

109.  Hayward-Tyler's  Filling  Machine 191 

110.  Filling  the  Bottles  .          . 191 

111.  Testing  Gauge  for  Syphons       ......      194 

112.  Testing  Gauge  for  Codd's  Bottles 194 

113.  Apparatus  for  Arsenic  Tests      ....  ,201 

114.  Acetic  Bacteria  (Hansen) 207 


M.W. 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED 
WATERS 


CHAPTER    I 

ORIGIN  AND  PROPERTIES  OF  NATURAL  MINERAL  WATERS- 
GASES  IN  NATURAL  WATERS — HOLY  WELLS — THE  ZEM- 
ZEM  WELL  AT  MECCA 

IN  its  original  signification  the  term  "  mineral  waters  " 
was  restricted  to  those  natural  spring  waters  to  which  medi- 
cinal properties  were  attributed,  either  by  reason  of  the  salts 
that  they  contained  in  solution,  or  of  the  gases  with  which  they 
were  saturated. 

These  products  thus  formed  a  natural  group  in  a  series 
ranging  from  rain  water  at  one  end  of  the  scale  to  sea  water, 
brine  springs,  and  petrifying  wells  at  the  other. 

When  freshly  discharged  from  a  cloud  rain  water  is  the  purest 
form  of  natural  water,  but  on  its  way  through  the  atmosphere 
it  becomes  contaminated  with  various  gases,  and  as  soon  as 
it  reaches  the  soil  begins  to  take  up  different  salts,  the  nature 
and  proportion  of  which  will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  saline 
deposits  with  which  it  comes  in  contact.  According  to  the 
amount  of  salts  thus  dissolved,  natural  waters  are  classified 
as  soft  or  hard.  In  some  waters,  such  as  that  of  Loch  Katrine, 
the  water  is  very  nearly  as  free  from  solid  matter  as  rain  water, 
and  these  leave  only  traces  of  organic  matter  on  evaporation. 

In  others  so  large  a  proportion  of  salts  may  pass  into  solution 
that  the  product  is  a  saturated  saline  solution.  As  an  example 
of  a  natural  water  of  this  kind  we  have  the  water  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  which  the  writer  has  found  to  have  a  specific  gravity  of 

M.W.  B 


2  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

1-2031  and  to  contain  no  less  than  402  parts  of  solid  matter  per 
1,000.  Between  extremes  of  this  kind  come  river  waters, 
ordinary  well  waters,  and  drinkable  saline  waters,  which 
obviously  differ  more  in  the  quantity  than  in  the  nature  of 
their  dissolved  constituents. 

Alterations  in  Natural  Waters. — Another  point  in  connec- 
tion with  natural  waters  is  that,  although  in  some  cases 
their  composition  may  remain  fairly  constant,  as,  for  instance, 
soft  lake  waters,  they  may  also  show  great  variations  from 
time  to  time,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  season,  and  to 
alterations  in  the  level  of  the  pocket  of  water. 

An  interesting  example  of  this  alteration  is  afforded  by  the 
Government  well  in  Trafalgar  Square.  In  1848  this  water 
contained  99' 15  parts  per  100,000,  whereas  in  1900  an  analysis 
by  Mr.  W.  W.  Fisher  showed  that  it  only  contained  85' 7  parts 
per  100,000.  Between  the  years  1848  and  1857  the  water  lost 
14  per  cent,  of  its  total  saline  constituents,  but  since  the  latter 
date  has  remained  fairly  constant.  The  loss  consisted,  in  the 
main,  of  potassium  carbonate. 

In  another  case  within  the  writer's  experience  the  total 
solid  matter  in  the  water  from  a  deep  artesian  well  was  52 
parts  per  100,000  in  1895,  while  twelve  years  later  the  level 
of  the  water  had  sunk  some  30  to  40  feet,  and  the  water  then 
contained  only  43  parts  of  total  solids  per  100,000. 

In  moving  waters  alterations  in  the  proportions  of  the  various 
salts  are  often  brought  about  by  reactions  that  take  place 
between  the  salts  dissolved  at  one  period  and  those  with  which 
the  water  subsequently  comes  into  contact — with  the  result 
that  some  of  the  substances  first  dissolved  are  subsequently 
re-precipitated. 

Effect  of  Gases  in  Natural  Waters. — Another  factor  which 
affects  the  amount  of  saline  matter  in  a  water  is  the  presence 
of  carbon  dioxide  and  other  gases.  For  example,  the  car- 
bonates of  calcium  and  magnesium,  which  occur  in  many 
mineral  waters  and  are  the  cause  of  the  temporary  hardness 
in  drinking  waters,  are  precipitated  when  the  water  is  boiled 


PROPERTIES   OF   NATURAL   MINERAL   WATERS      3 

so  as  to  expel  the  dissolved  carbon  dioxide  which  kept  them  in 
solution. 

Many  of  the  petrifying  wells  owe  their  power  of  incrustating 
objects  with  a  deposit  of  calcium  carbonate  to  this  cause. 
The  water  is  so  saturated  with  the  salt,  which  is  solely  kept  in 
solution  by  the  dissolved  carbonic  acid,  that  when  a  proportion 
of  the  gas  escapes  from  the  splashing  water  part  of  the  carbonate 
is  precipitated. 

Another  striking  example  of  the  part  thus  played  by  carbon 
dioxide  in  natural  waters  is  afforded  by  the  formation  of 
stalactites  in  caverns.  Each  drop  of  water  falling  from  the 
roof  parts  with  a  little  of  its  dissolved  carbon  dioxide,  and 
thus  causes  the  deposition  of  some  of  the  calcium  carbonate 
with  which  it  is  also  charged,  until,  finally,  the  succeeding  drops 
traverse  an  envelope  of  the  separated  salt,  and  the  stalactite 
gradually  lengthens.  At  the  point  where  the  drop  falls  a 
stalagmite  may  be  produced,  and  eventually  may  grow  to  a 
sufficient  height  to  meet  the  descending  stalactite  and  form  a 
solid  column. 

To  the  same  cause  may  sometimes  be  attributed  the  depo- 
sition of  iron  salts  which  takes  place  in  certain  chalybeate 
waters  on  standing.  The  iron  carbonate  in  the  water  is  kept 
in  solution  so  long  as  the  liquid  remains  saturated  with  carbon 
dioxide,  but  with  the  escape  of  the  gas  the  iron  salt  is 
precipitated. 

A  good  example  of  this  is  afforded  by  the  chalybeate  waters 
of  Tunbridge  Wells,  which  contain  in  solution  about  0*025  part 
of  iron  per  1,000,  corresponding  to  rather  more  than  twice 
that  quantity  of  iron  carbonate,  which  is  kept  in  solution  by 
the  free  carbon  dioxide.  In  one  analysis  the  dissolved  gas 
amounted  to  69-35  c.c.  per  litre  (or  19-19  cubic  inches  per  gallon). 

Carbon  Dioxide  in  Water. — The  degree  of  solubility  of  carbon 
dioxide  in  water  under  varying  degrees  of  pressure  and  tem- 
perature is  a  factor  of  considerable  importance  in  the  manu- 
facture of  aerated  beverages.  This  point  is  discussed  in  the 
section  dealing  with  the  production  and  properties  of  carbon 
dioxide. 


4       MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

In  the  case  of  natural  mineral  waters  it  is  sufficient  to  state 
here  that  at  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure  and  normal 
temperature  (60°  F.),  the  gas  is  soluble  in  about  an  equal 
volume  of  water. 

The  proportion  of  carbon  dioxide  in  natural  mineral  waters 
varies  within  wide  limits.  In  some,  the  water  is  completely 
saturated  with  the  gas  as  it  leaves  the  spring,  at  a  relatively 
low  temperature,  and  on  standing  in  the  air  it  gradually 
attains  the  normal  temperature,  and  bubbles  of  gas  continually 
escape. 

In  others  only  traces  of  carbon  dioxide  are  present  in  the 
dissolved  gases. 

Hydrogen  Sulphide. — Another  group  of  natural  waters, 
which  may  be  typified  by  the  sulphur  springs  of  Harrogate, 
contain  large  amounts  of  hydrogen  sulphide.  For  example, 
from  the  water  of  the  Old  Sulphur  Well,  Muspratt  separated 
36-09  cubic  inches  of  gases  per  gallon,  consisting  of  61'06  per 
cent,  of  carbon  dioxide,  16-17  per  cent,  of  methane,  8-08  per 
cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  14-69  per  cent,  of  hydrogen  sulphide. 

Nitrogen  and  Inert  Gases. — In  some  mineral  waters  the 
gases  in  solution  consist  principally  of  nitrogen  (including 
argon,  neon,  etc.).  Thus  in  the  case  of  the  Buxton  waters, 
Muspratt  found  504  cubic  inches  of  nitrogen  and  3-5  cubic 
inches  of  carbon  dioxide  per  litre.  The  therapeutic  action  of 
Buxton  water  has  been  attributed  to  this  large  amount  of 
nitrogen,  but  is  much  more  likely  to  be  due  to  the  presence 
of  niton  (radium  emanation)  (see  Chapter  IV.). 

Holy  Wells.— The  medicinal  properties  of  some  of  the  more 
saline  waters  could  hardly  have  escaped  recognition  at  a  very 
early  period  of  man's  history,  and  the  good  effects  produced 
in  some  cases  by  a  liberal  use  of  certain  springs  frequently 
led  to  their  acquiring  a  supernatural  reputation  and  being 
regarded  as  the  direct  cause  of  many  a  miraculous  cure. 

For  instance,  long  before  the  Reformation  votive  offerings 
were  made  to  St.  Anne  at  Buxton  for  the  cures  effected  by  the 


HOLY   WELLS  5 

use  of  the  waters  of  her  well,  and  the  practice  was  finally 
forbidden  by  Henry  VIII. 

In  many  instances  this  holy  reputation  has  been  handed  down 
to  the  present  day  ;  in  others  all  record  of  the  well  itself  has 
disappeared,  and  only  its  name  has  survived.  To  this  cause 
we  can  attribute  the  origin  of  the  name  "  Holy  Well,"  which 
is  of  such  frequent  occurrence  in  towns  and  villages  all  over 
Europe. 

Some  of  the  "  holy  "  wells  justify  their  medicinal  fame  by 
the  fact  that  their  waters  contain  Epsom  salt,  Glauber's 
salt,  or  sulphur  compounds  possessing  a  therapeutic  action 
when  applied  externally. 

In  other  cases  the  good  effects  claimed  to  have  been  brought 
about  by  the  waters  may  have  been  mainly  due  to  a 
simultaneous  exercise  of  faith. 

Take,  for  example,  the  water  of  St.  Winifred's  Well  at  Holy- 
well  in  North  Wales,  which  even  yet  retains  some  vestiges  of 
its  mediaeval  character  of  a  health-giving  spring,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  half  a  century  ago  it  was  shown  that  the 
salts  it  contained  were  remarkable  neither  in  kind  nor  in 
quantity. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  J.  Barrat,1  it  contained  30-4 
grains  per  gallon  of  salts,  consisting  principally  of  calcium 
carbonate,  calcium  sulphate,  and  calcium  chloride,  with  smaller 
quantities  of  magnesium  carbonate,  sodium  chloride,  and 
silica. 

There  remains,  however,  the  possibility  that  this  water  may 
be  strongly  radio-active,  and  that  it  acquired  its  reputation 
from  this  cause  and  not  from  the  nature  of  its  saline 
constituents. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  with  this  the  composition  of  the 
water  of  the  holy  well,  on  the  north  shore  of  Morecambe  Bay, 
which  at  one  time  was  the  property  of  the  Priors  of  Cartmel. 

It  was  highly  esteemed  as  a  cure  for  gout  and  diseases  of  the 
skin,  and  is  mentioned  in  the  pages  of  Camden  as  a  medicinal 
spring. 

The  water,  which  issues  from  a  fissure  in  a  rock  close  to  the 

1  J.  Chem.  Soc.,  1860,  XII.,  p.  52. 


6  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

sea,  was  examined  by  Mr.  (now  Sir  Edward)  Thorpe  in  1868,1 
and  was  found  to  contain  7-19  parts  per  1,000  of  salts,  consisting 
chiefly  of  sodium  chloride  and  calcium  sulphate,  with  smaller 
quantities  of  calcium  carbonate,  magnesium  chloride  and 
sodium  sulphate,  and  minute  quantities  of  barium,  strontium 
and  lithium  salts  (0-002  part),  silica  and  iron  carbonate 
(0-003  part). 

The  Sacred  Well  of  Mecca. — Probably  the  most  celebrated 
holy  well  in  the  world  is  the  sacred  well  at  Mecca,  which 
tradition  claims  to  be  the  actual  well  of  Hagar. 

To  all  Mohammedans,  therefore,  it  is  an  object  of  especial 
veneration,  though  among  Europeans  it  has  the  reputation  of 
having  been  the  means  of  distributing  more  than  one  outbreak 
of  cholera. 

Each  pilgrim  to  Mecca  is  required  to  drink  of  this  water  and 
to  bathe  in  it,  and  since  the  supply  would  be  far  too  limited 
to  meet  the  demand  of  the  thousands  of  annual  pilgrims,  a 
conservative  process  has  been  evolved. 

An  Arab  stands  upon  the  parapet  of  the  well  and  draws  up 
the  water  in  a  bucket.  A  pilgrim  then  advances  and  receives 
the  contents  of  the  bucket  on  his  head.  He  drinks  what  he 
can,  and  the  remainder  flows  down  over  him,  and  falls  back 
through  a  grating  into  the  well,  whence  it  is  again  drawn,  to 
be  poured  over  succeeding  pilgrims. 

When  we  reflect  that  this  practice  has  been  going  on  year 
after  year  with  generations  of  pilgrims  (70,000  to  80,000  a  year), 
it  is  not  surprising  that  the  water  of  the  Zem-Zem  well  shows 
extreme  pollution,  or  that  the  well  has  been  the  medium  for 
spreading  infection  far  and  wide. 

The  water  is  not  only  drunk  in  Mecca  itself,  but  is  exported 
to  all  parts  of  the  world  for  the  use  of  the  faithful,  and  a  great 
trade  is  done  in  the  sale  of  the  bottles  to  the  pilgrims. 

The  curious  tin  bottle,  shown  in  the  accompanying  photo- 
graph, is  one  of  several  brought  back  in  1853  by  Sir  Richard 
Burton  from  Mecca,  and  was  given  to  the  present  writer  by 
Lady  Burton  shortly  before  her  death. 

1  J.  Chem.  Soc.,  1868,  XXI.,  p.  19. 


THE    SACRED    WELL   OF   MECCA  7 

Readers  of  Burton's  "  Pilgrimage  to  Mecca  "  will  remember 
how,  disguising  himself  as  a  pilgrim  dervish,  he  succeeded  at 
the  risk  of  his  life  in  making  his  way  to  Mecca,  and  took  part  in 
all  the  ceremonies  at  the  tomb  of  the  prophet. 

One  of  the  objects  of  his  pilgrimage  was  to  see  the  Zem-Zem 
well  and  to  obtain  some  of  the  water,  and  his  account  of  the 


FIG.  1. — Tin  Bottle,  containing  Holy  Water,  brought  from 
Mecca  by  Sir  Kichard  Burton. 

properties  of  the  most  renowned  mineral  water  of  the  Old 
World  is  well  worth  quoting  : — 

"  The  produce  of  Zem-Zem  is  held  in  great  esteem.  It  is 
used  for  drinking  and  religious  ablution,  but  for  no  baser 
purpose,  and  the  Meccans  advise  pilgrims  always  to  break  their 
fast  with  it.  It  is  apt  to  cause  boils,  and  I  never  saw  a  stranger 


8  MINERAL   AND   AERATED    WATERS 

drink  it  without  a  wry  face.  Sale  is  decidedly  correct  in  his 
assertion  :  the  flavour  is  a  salt-bitter,  much  resembling  an 
infusion  of  a  teaspoonful  of  Epsom  salts  in  a  large  tumbler 
of  tepid  water.  Moreover,  it  is  exceedingly  '  heavy  '  to  the 
digestion.  For  this  reason  Turks  and  other  strangers  prefer 
rain  water,  collected  in  a  cistern,  and  sold  for  five  farthings  a 
gugglet.  It  was  a  favourite  amusement  with  me  to  watch 
them  whilst  they  drank  the  holy  water,  and  to  taunt  their 
scant  and  irreverent  potations." 

The  analysis  of  the  water  made  by  the  writer  fully  confirmed 
this  description  of  its  unpleasant  character.  It  consisted,  in 
the  main,  of  a  strong  solution  of  magnesium  sulphate  and 
common  salt,  and  showed  an  extreme  degree  of  pollution,  as  is 
seen  by  a  glance  at  the  following  figures  : — 1 


Aluminium 
Calcium 
Silica     . . 
Mag 
Sodium .  . 


lie  si  urn 


Grains  per 
gallon. 
0-8 
0-5 
3-0 
6-6 
38-3 


Grains  per 

gallon. 

Potassium.  .  .  .       24*3 

Ammonium  .  .         5*3 

Chlorine  .  .  .  .  69*3 
Sulphates  . .  . .  30 •? 
Nitrates  19 '9 


The  proportion  of  salts  left  on  evaporation  was  219*5  grains 
per  gallon.  On  bacteriological  examination  it  was  found  to 
be  sterile,  but  this  was  not  surprising,  considering  that  it  had 
been  sealed  up  for  upwards  of  half  a  century  in  an  air-tight 
vessel. 

1  Proc.  Chem.  Soc.,  1893,  IX.,  p.  245. 


CHAPTER    II 

SPAS    AND    THEIR   SPRINGS 

AN  interesting  book  might  be  written  upon  the  spas  of 
Europe,  their  rapid  rise  into  fame,  their  struggles  for  existence, 
and,  in  many  cases,  their  final  disappearance.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  the  success  or  failure  of  a  spa  was  frequently 
a  matter  of  luck,  and  many  a  watering  place  has  owed  its  fortune 
not  so  much  to  the  nature  of  its  springs  as  to  its  having  attracted 
the  notice  of  some  celebrated  person,  who  has  believed  himself 
better  for  taking  the  waters,  and  has  proved  an  advertisement 
of  the  place  to  Society. 

Thus  Cheltenham  first  became  really  famous  as  a  spa 
through  being  visited  by  George  III.  in  1788,  and  this 
visit  started  a  period  of  prosperity  for  the  town,  which  lasted 
until  the  fashion  turned  in  the  direction  of  the  German  spas, 
at  the  end  of  the  war,  in  1815. 

A  gradual  decline  in  the  popularity  of  the  Cheltenham  Spa 
then  followed,  and  by  the  middle  of  the  last  century  it  had  few 
visitors.  Thus,  according  to  Muspratt,  writing  in  1860,  it 
"  furnished  a  striking  proof  that  the  furor  for  saline  and  other 
springs  is  daily  abating  ;  thousands  used  to  rush  yearly  to 
partake  of  its  waters,  whereas  it  is  now  almost  entirely 
deserted."  Since  then  Cheltenham  has  again  revived  as  a 
watering  place,  and  is  now  in  a  nourishing  condition,  although 
it  is  no  longer  the  exclusive  resort  of  Society  that  it  once  was. 

Other  spas  have  never  revived  after  their  first  desertion. 
Epsom  Spa,  for  example,  which  during  the  eighteenth  century 
rivalled  Bath  and  Tunbridge  Wells  in  attracting  London 
society,  has  sunk  into  an  oblivion  from  which  it  will  never  arise. 
Of  the  vast  crowds  who  yearly  attend  the  races  at  Epsom  it 
is  safe  to  assert  that  not  one  in  a  hundred  could  say  where  the 
wells  are  situated.  This  partly  came  about  from  the  nature 


10 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


of  the  water  itself,  and  the  fact  that  the  same  results  could 
be  obtained  by  the  use  of  Epsom  salts  at  home. 

Among  other  spas  that  once  enjoyed  some  measure  of  popu- 


a 

H 


larity,  and  the  memory  of  which  is  not  always  preserved  even 
in  local  names,  mention  may  be  made  of  Islington,  Dulwich, 
Streatham,  and  Hampstead. 


SPAS   AND   THEIR   SPRINGS  11 

The  wells  at  Islington,  the  water  of  which  was  alkaline  and 
non-effervescent,  were  still  in  use  as  late  as  the  year  1860, 
and  their  name  is  recalled  in  the  Sadlers  Wells  Theatre — now 
a  music-hall. 

The  Streatham  Spa  has  not  even  left  so  lasting  a  trace  as 
this,  although  the  present  writer,  a  few  years  ago,  was  able  to 
discover  one  of  the  springs,  which  then  issued  in  a  farmyard 
pool  from  which  cattle  were  allowed  to  drink. 

The  Hampstead  Spa,  again,  which  was  discovered  in  the  early 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  rapidly  became  famous,  and 
was  each  year  visited  by  crowds  as  great  as  those  frequenting 
either  Epsom  or  Tunbridge  Wells.  Its  waters,  which  were 
chalybeate  in  character,  are  described  by  Elliott  and  other 
early  writers  upon  the  mineral  waters  of  this  country. 

After  a  period  of  prosperity  of  more  than  half  a  century, 
Hampstead  shared  the  fate  of  Epsom,  and  ceased  to  exist  as  a 
watering  place,  and  finally  the  supplies  of  water  to  the 
wells  themselves  were  affected  by  the  excavations  for  the 
drainage  system  and  the  cuttings  for  the  railways. 

The  shaded  eighteenth-century  raised  pathway,  still  known  as 
the  "  Pump  Walk,"  is  left  as  a  reminder  that  there  once  was  a 
spa  at  Hampstead. 

During  the  early  years  of  the  Victorian  period  numerous  books 
were  published  dealing  in  a  more  or  less  desultory  fashion 
with  the  various  springs  of  Germany,  and  some  of  these  ran 
through  many  editions  in  this  country.  Their  writers,  who, 
by  the  way,  frequently  display  an  amusing  animosity  to  one 
another,  were  medical  men  who  established  consulting  practices 
in  some  of  the  German  watering  places  that  they  recommended  ; 
and  their  books  proved  good  advertisements  for  the  little 
towns — and  for  themselves. 

The  general  effect,  however,  of  this  "  booming  "  of  the  foreign 
watering  places  was  that  the  well-known  English  spas  were 
still  further  affected  financially,  while  at  the  same  time  there 
was  created  a  speculative  movement  for  the  establishment 
of  new  spas  in  various  parts  of  England. 

It  was  urged  by  the  promoters  of  these  schemes  that  since 
so  much  benefit  was  being  derived  from  visits  to  the  German 


12  MINEKAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

springs  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  obtain  the  like  benefits  from 
similar  springs  at  home.  Hence,  wherever  a  spring  with  any 
pretensions  to  being  a  mineral  water  was  discovered  it  was 
exploited  even  when  there  was  not  the  remotest  chance  of 
its  proving  a  success.  Companies  were  floated,  each  with  an 
attractive  prospectus,  the  money  was  subscribed  and  pump- 
rooms  were  put  up  in  the  approved  style  of  a  Grecian  temple. 
The  waters  were  there  waiting  to  be  "  taken,"  but  no  one  came 
to  drink  them,  for  in  most  instances  these  ill-fated  spas, 
which  were  usually  in  out-of-the-way  places,  seldom  survived 
their  birth  by  more  than  a  year  or  two,  while  some  of  them  were 
still-born. 

A  striking  monument  of  this  folly  may  still  be  seen  at  Hockley, 
a  small  village  in  Essex.  In  the  year  1842  a  saline  spring  was 
found  there,  and  its  discovery  was  followed  in  the  usual  way 
by  the  building  of  a  pump-room,  with  baths  and  a  spa  hotel. 
As  was  to  be  expected,  the  venture  proved  an  absolute  failure 
from  the  very  first,  and  its  abandoned  Ionic  pump-room  still 
stands  by  the  side  of  a  country  lane,  while  the  "  Spa  Hotel  " 
is  now  occupied  by  a  coal  dealer.  The  water  itself  appears 
to  be  quite  unknown  to  any  of  the  people  in  the  village. 

An  amusing  description  of  the  struggle  made  by  another  of 
these  mushroom  spas  to  overcome  the  indifference  of  those 
whom  it  was  so  anxious  to  cure  will  be  found  in  "  The  Chil terns 
and  the  Vale."  l  This  spring  was  "  discovered  "  at  Dor  ton, 
a  village  at  the  foot  of  Brill  Hill  in  Buckinghamshire,  though, 
according  to  Lipscomb,  the  natives  of  the  place  had  known  of 
it  long  before,  and  had  used  its  iron  waters  "  in  cutaneous 
diseases  and  for  washing  mangey  dogs."  A  pump-room  of  the 
usual  type  was  put  up  with  its  accompanying  hotel,  to  which 
the  attractive  name  of  "  Morris's  Dorton  Spa  Rural  Hotel  " 
was  given,  and  the  advertisements  described  the  place,  which 
is  about  fifty  miles  from  London,  as  "  within  a  morning's 
drive  of  the  metropolis." 

But  in  spite  of  such  specious  advertising,  and  the  giving  of 
"  promenades  musicales  "  and  fetes,  Dorton  failed  to  capture 

1  "  The  Chilterns  and  the  Vale,"  by  G.  Eland. 


SPAS   AND   THEIR   SPRINGS  13 

its  share  of  the  fashionable  patients,  who  still  preferred  to 
go  further  afield  to  Bath  and  Tunbridge  Wells. 

In  the  absence  of  distinguished  visitors  the  risk  was  too  great 
for  builders  to  put  up  houses,  and  this  want  of  accommodation 
appears  to  have  been  another  of  the  causes  that  accelerated 
the  failure  of  the  spa.  After  the  year  1840  no  further  attempts 
seem  to  have  been  made  to  check  the  decline,  and  the  pump- 
room  was  allowed  to  fall  into  ruins. 

The  well  is  still  there,  but  only  traces  of  the  foundations  of 
its  ambitious  pump-room  can  now  be  discovered. 

Classification  of  Spa  Waters. — Mineral  springs  are  usually 
roughly  classified  into  groups,  in  accordance  with  the  chemical 
composition  of  the  salts  they  contain  or  the  physiological 
effects  they  produce.  The  varieties  of  waters  typified  by  those 
of  Bath  and  Buxton,  which  contain  very  little  solid  matter, 
were  until  recently  often  grouped  together  as  "  indifferent 
waters,"  but  the  discovery  of  their  radio-activity  shows  that 
this  was  a  wrong  description  (see  Chapter  IV.). 

For  convenience  of  a  general  survey  the  principal  waters 
may  be  considered  under  the  heads  of  :  I.  Alkaline  Waters  ; 
II.  Lithium  Waters ;  III.  Iron  or  Chalybeate  Waters ;  IV. 
Aperient  Waters  ;  V.  Sulphurous  Waters  ;  VI.  Arsenical  Waters; 
and  VII.  Barium  Waters. 

Naturally,  as  in  all  classifications  of  natural  objects,  some 
of  these  groups  overlap  each  other.  Those  waters  that  are 
more  commonly  used  for  drinking  at  table  rather  than 
medicinally  are  dealt  with  in  the  following  Chapter. 

I.   Alkaline  Waters. 

These  waters  are  characterised  by  containing  a  considerable 
proportion  of  sodium  carbonate,  magnesium  carbonate,  or 
other  alkaline  salt  as  a  main  constituent,  and  are  the  most 
extensively  used  of  all  the  mineral  waters,  especially  in  the 
treatment  of  digestive  troubles  and  rheumatic  complaints. 

AIX-LES-BAINS  (Eaux  des  deux  Reines). — This  is  a  slightly 
alkaline  water,  containing  1-99  grains  of  mineral  solids  per 


14       MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

pint,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  calcium  bicarbonate,  with 
a  very  small  quantity  of  magnesium  bicarbonate  and  silica. 
The  gases  consist  of  carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  (Kaiserbrunnen). — This  water,  which  is 
also  used  as  a  digestive  table  water,  contains  36  grains  of  total 
solids  per  pint,  the  chief  constituent  being  sodium  chloride 
(22-9  grains),  sodium  carbonate  (5-8  grains),  calcium  carbonate 
(1*38  grains),  sodium  sulphate  (2-48  grains),  and  potassium 
sulphate  (1-34  grains),  with  smaller  quantities  of  sodium 
sulphide,  magnesium  carbonate,  silica  and  organic  matter,  and 
traces  of  many  other  salts. 

BUXTON  (The  Thermal  Spring  or  St.  Anne's  Well). — The 
waters  of  this  spring  have  been  used  for  centuries  past  for  the 
treatment  of  gout,  rheumatism,  and  similar  troubles,  but  the 
undoubtedly  good  results  that  have  been  obtained  are  probably 
due,  not  to  the  alkaline  salts,  but  to  the  radio-active  properties 
of  the  water.  According  to  an  analysis  quoted  by  Ingram 
and  Royle  the  thermal  water  has  the  following  composition  : — 
Calcium  bicarbonate,  1-762  ;  magnesium  bicarbonate,  0*752  ; 
sodium  sulphate,  0*105  ;  sodium  chloride,  0*387  ;  magnesium 
chloride,  0*118  ;  silica,  0*118  ;  carbon  dioxide,  0-025  ;  nitrogen, 
0-025  grains  ;  and  total  solids,  3-416  grains  per  pint. 

EMS. — The  alkaline  waters  from  the  springs  at  Ems,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Lahn,  contain  a  large  proportion  of  sodium 
bicarbonate,  with  a  smaller  amount  of  sodium  chloride,  cal- 
cium bicarbonate,  and  magnesium  bicarbonate.  According 
to  an  analysis  of  Fresenius,  a  sample  of  the  Kesselbrunnen 
water  contained  33-78  grains  of  total  solids  per  pint,  including 
18-99  grains  of  sodium  bicarbonate,  9-7  grains  of  sodium 
chloride,  2-27  grains  of  calcium  bicarbonate,  1-79  grains  of 
magnesium  bicarbonate,  0-49  grain  of  potassium  sulphate, 
together  with  traces  of  iron,  phosphoric  acid,  and  barium. 

EVIAN. — The  alkalinity  of  this  water  is  mainly  due  to  carbon- 
ates of  calcium  and  magnesium,  and  is  so  small  that  the  water 
is  often  used  for  drinking  at  table  in  France.  An  analysis 
of  water  from  the  Cachat  Spring  gave  the  following  results  :— 
Calcium  carbonate,  1-72  ;  magnesium  carbonate,  0-71  ;  sodium 
carbonate,  0-049  ;  phosphates  of  iron  and  calcium,  0*007  ; 


SPAS   AND   THEIR   SPRINGS 


15 


sodium  sulphate,  0-069  ;  potassium  sulphate,  0-045  ;  sodium 
chloride,  0'026  ;  sodium  nitrate,  0-025  ;  and  silica,  0"124  grains 
per  pint,  together  with  traces  of  lithium  and  iodine.  Total 
solids,  2-78  grains. 

KISSINGER. — There  are  several  saline  springs  at  Kissingen, 
in  Bavaria  ;  the  best  known  of  which  is  the  "  Rakoczy," 
which  was  the  name  of  its  discoverer.  Common  salt  is  the 
main  constituent  in  the  waters,  which  contain  much  man- 
ganese chloride  and  calcium  carbonate. 

The  following  figures,  quoted  by  Ingram  and  Royle,  give  the 
results  of  the  analysis  of  three  of  the  Kissingen  springs  :— 


Rakoczy 

Pandur 

Max  Brunnen 

Spring 
(by  Liebig). 

(1866> 

(1809). 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Grains. 

Sodium  chloride 

50-943 

48-306 

20-267 

Potassium  chloride 

2-510 

2-112 

3-290 

Magnesium  chloride 

2-658 

1-851 

0-945 

Lithium  chloride 

0-175 

0-147 

0-006 

Manganese  chloride 

5-148 

5-230 

1-752 

Calcium  chloride 

3-407 

2-629 

1-665 

Magnesium  bicarbonate 
Calcium  bicarbonate 

0-149 
9-283 

0-392 
8-879 

0-599 
4-945 

Ferrous  carbonate 

0-276 

0-242 

0-021 

Calcium  phosphate 
Silica 

0-049 
0-113 

0-046 
0-035 

0-044 
0-029 

Sodium  nitrate 

0-814 

0-031 

0-676 

Sodium  bromide 

0-073 

0'062 

— 

Total  solids,  including  other 

substances 

74-867 

79-96 

34-24 

Free  carbon  dioxide 

11-42 

13-17 

11-0 

VICHY. — The  springs  of  Vichy,  at  the  base  of  the  Auvergne 
Mountains,  are  now  under  the  control  of  the  French  Govern- 
ment, and  the  baths  and  bottling  of  the  waters  are  supervised 
by  State  officials.  Salts  obtained  by  evaporation  of  the  water 
are  also  sold  for  use  in  baths  at  home  and  are  compressed  into 
digestive  lozenges. 

The  composition  of  the  State  springs  as  shown  by  the 
official  analysis  is  as  follows  :— 


16 


MINEEAL   AND   AEBATED   WATEES 


— 

Grande  Grille. 

Hdpital. 

Celestins. 

Sodium  bicarbonate 

2-442 

2-515 

2-552 

Potassium  bicarbonate 

0-176 

0-220 

0-157 

Magnesium  bicarbonate 

0-151 

o-ioo 

0-164 

Strontium  bicarbonate 

0-001 

0-002 

0-002 

Calcium  bicarbonate 

0-217 

0-285 

0-231 

Iron  bicarbonate 

. 

0-002 

0-002 

0-002 

Sodium  sulphate 

0-146 

0-145 

0-145 

Sodium  phosphate 

. 

0-065 

0-023 

0-045 

Sodium  arsenate 

. 

o-ooi 

0-001 

o-ooi 

Sodium  chloride 

, 

0-267 

0-259 

0-267 

Silica 

. 

0-035 

0-025 

0-030 

Free  carbon  dioxide 

0-454 

0-533 

0-525 

Total  grains  per  pint  .  . 

3-957 

4-110 

4-121 

WYCHIA  WATER. — The  water  of  the  Wychia  Spring  at  Droit- 
wich  differs  from  those  given  above,  in  that  it  is  strongly  saline 
(148  grains  per  pint),  and  contains  relatively  little  carbonate, 
the  principal  salts  being  sodium  chloride  (87-0  grains)  and 
sodium  sulphate  (58-3  grains).  It  is  thus  more  akin  to  the 
aperient  waters  in  Class  III. 

Among  the  numerous  other  waters  which  might  also  be 
mentioned  here  are  St.  Galmier,  Perrier,  Bath  (Sulis),  Malvern, 
and  Taunus  waters,  which  will  be  described  under  Table  Mineral 
Waters. 


II.   Lithium  Waters. 

Certain  waters  contain  appreciable  amounts  of  lithium  salts, 
and  have,  therefore,  been  used  in  complaints  for  which  lithium 
is  prescribed.  For  example,  the  water  of  Bilin  contains 
0-062  grain  of  lithium  carbonate  per  pint,  while  three  of  the 
Carlsbad  springs  contain  from  0-106  to  0-12  grain.  In  some 
of  the  Roy  at  waters  the  proportion  of  lithium  is  still  greater, 
amounting  to  0-306  grain  of  lithium  chloride  per  pint. 

Traces  of  lithium  are  present  in  the  water  of  the  Old  Sulphur 
Well  in  Harrogate  and  in  many  other  English  mineral  waters 
but    not   in    sufficient    quantity    to    have    attracted    special 
attention. 


SPAS   AND   THEIR   SPRINGS  17 


III.   Iron  or  Chalybeate  Waters. 

Many  of  the  waters  in  this  group  are  only  distinguished  from 
the  alkaline  and  saline  waters  by  the  fact  that  they  contain  a 
notable  proportion  of  iron,  which  is  frequently  kept  in  solution 
by  the  carbon  dioxide. 

Among  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  iron  waters  are  those 
of  Tunb ridge  Wells  (which  are  non-effervescent),  Buxton, 
Pyrmont,  and  Spa.  As  a  rule  the  proportion  of  iron  in  chaly- 
beate waters  ranges  from  0-003  to  0-012  per  cent. 

BUXTON  CHALYBEATE  WATER. — This  water,  which  is  also 
bottled  for  table  use,  contains  only  3-389  grains  of  mineral  matter 
per  pint,  of  which  0-42  grain  is  in  the  form  of  ferrous  carbonate, 
1-138  grains  as  calcium  sulphate,  and  0-612  grain  as 
magnesium  sulphate.  It  is  commonly  used  as  a  tonic  in 
anaemia. 

PYRMONT. — The  springs  of  Pyrmont  in  Waldeck  are  histori- 
cally interesting  from  the  fact  that  it  was  from  experiments 
upon  their  water  that  the  nature  of  the  principal  gas  in  mineral 
waters  was  discovered  (see  Chapter  V.). 

Pyrmont  water  was  so  much  esteemed  in  the  eighteenth 
century  that  it  was  bottled  in  large  quantities  and  exported  to 
Paris  and  London.  Here,  prior  to  the  invention  of  soda  water, 
it  became  a  fashionable  drink,  and  was  extensively  advertised 
by  an  agent  who  had  his  shop  in  Pall  Mall. 

The  history  of  the  spring  and  an  account  of  experiments 
upon  the  nature  of  the  water  were  published  by  Seip  in  1712, 
who  gives  the  curious  plan  (Fig.  3)  of  the  place,  and 
by  his  son  in  1750.  The  water  was  also  examined  and 
described  by  many  of  the  chemists  of  the  latter  part  of  that 
century. 

The  waters  from  the  old  Trinkbrunnen  and  the  more  recent 
Neu  Brunnen  are  of  very  similar  composition,  both  containing 
a  little  over  30  grains  of  mineral  matter  per  pint,  with  from 
0'6  to  0-7  grain  of  ferrous  carbonate. 

Analyses  by  Wiggers  of  the  chief  constituents  of  these  waters, 
expressed  in  grains  per  pint,  were  as  follows  : — 

M.W.  C 


18  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


SPAS   AND   THEIR   SPRINGS 


19 


— 

Trinkbrunnen. 

Neu  Brunnen. 

Ferrous  bicarbonate 

0-72 

0-57 

Calcium  bicarbonate 

13-10 

15-47 

Manganese  bicarbonate 

0-06 

1-27 

Magnesium  bicarbonate 

0-22 

0-27 

Calcium  sulphate 

11-32 

0-59 

Potassium  sulphate 

0-29 

0-62 

Sodium  sulphate.  . 

— 

2-77 

Magnesium  sulphate 

4-86 

3-69 

Sodium  chloride  .  . 

0-64 

11-13 

Lithium  chloride 

0-03 

0-02 

Magnesium  chloride 

0-87 

— 

Silica 

0-03 

0-36 

Total  solids  .  . 

32-16 

36-93 

Free  carbon  dioxide 

• 

• 

19-26 

17-08 

SPA  WATER. — Another  water  of  historic  interest,  to  which 
frequent  reference  is  made  in  these  pages,  is  that  of  Spa,  or 
"  Spaw  ;?  as  it  is  termed  by  the  early  writers.  In  the  later 
part  of  the  eighteenth  century  this  water  shared,  with  the 
celebrated  Pyrmont  water,  the  place  now  occupied  by  soda 
wrater,  and  was  imported  into  London  in  large  quantities. 
With  the  development  of  the  artificial  mineral-water  industry 
the  sale  of  both  these  waters  came  to  an  end,  and  it  is  only 
recently  that  they  have  again  been  imported  in  bottles. 

The  Spa  mineral  water  is  obtained  from  four  springs,  which 
differ  somewhat  in  composition  ;  that  containing  the  largest 
proportion  of  iron  is  derived  from  the  "  Prince  de  Conde  " 
Spring,  which,  according  to  a  French  analysis  quoted  by 
Ingram  and  Royle,  has  the  following  composition  : — Total 
solids,  4-57  grains  ;  consisting  of  carbonates  of  sodium  and 
potassium,  0-87  ;  calcium  carbonate,  0-96  ;  magnesium 
carbonate,  0-87  ;  sodium  chloride,  0-22  ;  sulphates  of  sodium 
and  potassium,  0-17  ;  iron  oxide,  1-04  ;  and  silica,  0-44  grains 
per  pint.  Free  carbon  dioxide,  0-875  grains.  The  water  of 
this  spring  and  the  other  springs  at  Spa  is  cold,  as  it  leaves 
the  rock. 

HOMBURG  WATERS. — Among  the  best  known  of  the  Conti- 
nental spas  and  most  frequented  by  those  in  search  of  a  "cure" 


20      MINEKAL  AND  AEEATED  WATEES 

must  be  ranked  the  springs  of  Homburg.  The  predominating 
mineral  constituents  in  the  waters  of  the  four  springs  are 
common  salt,  calcium  and  magnesium  carbonates,  magnesium 
chloride  and  iron  carbonate. 

The  composition  of  the  water  from  the  Elisabethbrunnen 
was  found  by  Liebig  to  be  as  follows  : — Sodium  chloride, 
98-94  ;  magnesium  chloride,  9-74  ;  ferrous  carbonate,  0-57  ; 
calcium  carbonate,  13-74  ;  sodium  sulphate,  0-47  ;  magnesium 
carbonate,  2-51  ;  and  silica,  0-4  grains  per  pint.  Total  solids, 
126-37  grains  ;  and  free  carbon  dioxide,  26-85  grains  per  pint. 

MARIENBAD. — The  waters  of  the  Marienbad  springs  contain 
about  100  grains  per  pint  of  mineral  matter,  about  half  of  which 
is  sodium  sulphate.  The  other  principal  salts  are  bicarbonates 
of  sodium,  calcium,  magnesium  and  iron,  and  sodium  chloride. 
The  amount  of  iron  varies  from  about  half  to  three-quarters  of  a 
grain  per  pint. 

Other  well-known  waters  containing  iron  include  those  of 
Fachingen,  Schwalbach,  Nauheim,  and  St.  Moritz. 

Iron  mineral  waters  are  frequently  subdivided  into 
"  sulphated  "  or  "  aluminated  "  and  carbonated.  The  former 
are  often  very  strong  and  need  dilution.  Examples  of  such 
springs  occur  in  Wales,  Scotland,  and  the  United  States. 
The  English  chalybeate  waters  usually  contain  much  less 
carbon  dioxide  than  the  Continental  iron  springs. 

IY.   Aperient  Springs. 

The  waters  classified  under  this  heading  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  magnesium  sulphate  or  sodium  sulphate,  with 
smaller  quantities  of  sodium  chloride  and  other  salts. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  the  waters  of  Epsom  became 
celebrated  all  over  Europe  owing  to  their  being  strongly 
charged  with  magnesium  sulphate  (hence  known  as  Epsom 
salts).  The  description  of  their  discovery,  as  given  by 
Nehemiah  Grew  in  1697,1  merits  quotation  :— 

"  The  mineral  waters  arising  near  Epsom  in  Surrey,  the  chief 
of  all  the  bitter  purging  waters,  were  found  out  by  a  country  - 

1  "  A  Treatise  of  the  Nature  and  Use  of  Bitter  Purging  Salts  Contained  in 
Epsom  and  other  such  Waters."  Nehemiah  Grew,  M.D.  London,  1697. 


SPAS   AND   THEIR  SPRINGS  21 

man  in  or  about  the  year  1620.  The  country  people  first  used 
them  for  external  complaints.  .  .  .  Afterwards  Lord  North, 
having  drank  the  Spaw  waters  in  Germany,  resolved  to  try  the 
virtues  of  these  Epsom  waters  (nattering  himself,  I  suppose, 
that  he  had  found  chalybeate  waters  at  his  own  door).  A 
few  years  after  the  discovery  was  published  others  of  the 
same  sort  grew  into  tolerable  repute  and  use.  The  names 
of  the  principal  are  :  Barnet,  North  Hall,  Acton,  Cobham, 
Dullidge,  and  Stretham." 

Epsom  soon  attracted  royalty.  Charles  II.  often  stayed 
there  with  his  Court,  and  subsequently  Queen  Anne,  before 
her  accession,  made  it  a  favourite  resort. 

The  fame  of  Epsom  led  to  the  discovery  of  similar  springs 
abroad,  and  early  in  the  eighteenth  century  Hoffmann 
published  an  account  of  the  occurrence  of  the  bitter  Epsom 
salt  in  the  waters  of  Seidlitz. 

OLD  SPRINGS. — The  waters  of  Seidlitz  and  of  Saidschutz 
are  still  bottled  for  exportation,  whereas  those  of  Epsom 
have  long  since  ceased  to  be  generally  used. 

The  Saidschutz  Water,  which  comes  from  a  spring  not  far 
from  Seidlitz,  has  a  similar  composition  to  the  latter,  containing 
about  178  grains  per  pint  of  mineral  salts,  of  which  84  grains 
are  magnesium  sulphate  and  47  grains  sodium  sulphate. 

Pullna  Water  comes  from  a  cold  spring  at  Pullna,  near 
Carlsbad,  and  was  used  by  the  villagers  long  before  it  was 
bottled  for  exportation.  It  contains  about  310  grains  of  solid 
matter  per  pint,  of  which  155  grains  are  sodium  sulphate  and 
116  grains  magnesium  sulphate. 

Friedrichshal. — Originally  this  spring  was  used  for  the 
extraction  of  the  salt  it  contained,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  that  it  began  to  be  used  medicinally. 
Since  then  the  water  has  been  bottled  and  exported  in 
increasingly  large  quantities. 

According  to  the  analysis  of  the  Municipal  Chemists  of 
Breslau,  it  contains  212-64  grains  of  salts,  consisting  of  54-39 
grains  of  magnesium  sulphate,  45-61  grains  of  sodium  sulphate, 
69-64  grains  of  sodium  chloride,  and  43-0  grains  of  magnesium 
chloride. 


22      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

ENGLISH  SPAS. — The  chief  English  aperient  waters,  several 
of  which  are  now  bottled,  are  those  of  the  Chadnor  Well  at 
Cheltenham,  and  Leamington. 

Cheltenham. — The  water  of  Chadnor  Well,  which  is  also  de- 
scribed as  the  "  magnesia  sulphate  saline,"  contains  38  grains 
of  mineral  salts,  including  14' 7  grains  of  magnesium  sulphate, 
7-6  grains  of  sodium  sulphate,  and  3-0  grains  of  sodium  chloride 
per  pint. 

Leamington. — In  the  Leamington  spa  water  there  are  155-3 
grains  of  salts,  consisting  largely  of  sodium  and  magnesium 
chlorides  and  sulphates.  The  following  analysis  is  quoted  by 
Ingram  and  Royle  : — Sodium,  52-53  ;  magnesium,  3-31  ; 
calcium,  10-90  ;  chlorine,  65-75  ;  sulphuric  acid,  22-81  ;  iron 
oxide,  0-005,  with  traces  of  silica  and  carbonic  acid. 

MODERN  SPRINGS. — Of  the  modern  aperient  springs,  the 
water  of  which  is  bottled  in  enormous  quantities  and  exported 
for  sale  all  over  Europe,  the  most  widely  known  are 
"  Aesculap,"  "  Apenta,"  and  "  Hunyadi  Janos." 

Aesculap. — This  spring  at  Budapest  was  found  in  1868  by  a 
peasant,  and  was  bought  in  1881  by  the  present  company. 
According  to  the  analysis  of  Mohr,  it  has  the  following  com- 
position : — Sodium  sulphate,  121-68  ;  magnesium  sulphate, 
151-20  ;  calcium  sulphate,  18-19  ;  sodium  chloride,  25-42  ; 
sodium  carbonate,  8-74  ;  manganese  carbonate,  0-375  ;  and 
alumina,  0-303  grains  per  pint,  with  traces  of  potassium, 
ammonium  sulphate,  and  silica.  Total  mineral  matter,  326-216 
grains  per  pint. 

Apenta  Water. — Another  Hungarian  spring,  the  waters  of 
which  are  strongly  saline,  is  described  by  the  name  of  "  Apenta." 
Its  chief  saline  constituents  are  magnesium  sulphate  and  sodium 
sulphate  in  approximately  equal  quantities.  An  analysis  of 
the  water  by  Tichborne  gave  the  following  results  : — Magnesium 
sulphate,  184-65  ;  magnesium  carbonate,  1-59  ;  magnesium 
bromide,  0-1  ;  sodium  sulphate,  163-82  ;  calcium  sulphate, 
23-09  ;  potassium  sulphate,  0-73  ;  lithium  sulphate,  0-66  ; 
sodium  carbonate,  4-19  ;  calcium  carbonate,  1-03  ;  ferrous 
carbonate,  0-67  ;  alumina,  0-26  ;  and  silica,  0-28  grains. 
Total  solids,  389-58  grains  per  pint. 


SPAS   AND   THEIR   SPRINGS  23 

Hunyadi  Jdnos. — This  aperient  spring,  which  is  also  in 
Hungary,  has  been  known  for  over  half  a  century,  and  its 
waters  are  now  bottled  and  exported  to  all  parts  of  the  world. 
According  to  Bunsen's  analysis,  it  has  the  following  compo- 
sition : — Sodium  sulphate,  197-32  ;  magnesium  sulphate, 
195-56  ;  potassium  sulphate,  1-06  ;  sodium  bicarbonate, 
51 91  ;  strontium  bicarbonate,  0*24  ;  calcium  bicarbonate, 
6-99  ;  sodium  chloride,  14-92  ;  ferrous  bicarbonate,  0-005  ; 
and  silica,  0-09  grains  per  pint.  Total  solids,  422-10  grains, 
and  carbonic  acid  (free  and  as  bicarbonate),  4-57  grains  per  pint. 

Y.   Sulphurous  Waters. 

Numerous  springs  owe  their  therapeutic  effect  to  the  presence 
of  small  quantities  of  sodium  sulphide,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
and  other  sulphur  compounds.  The  most  celebrated  of  these 
are  the  springs  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  which  have  been  used 
medicinally  from  the  time  of  the  Romans. 

The  Kaiserbrunnen  water  at  Aix  contains  31-5  grains  of 
salts  (mainly  sodium  chloride  and  sodium  carbonate),  with 
0-073  grain  of  sodium  sulphide  per  pint,  while  the  gases  in 
solution  contain  0-31  per  cent,  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

Of  the  sulphur  springs  in  this  country,  the  Old  Sulphur  Well 
at  Harrogate  is  the  oldest.  On  standing  this  water  becomes 
turbid  from  the  separation  of  sulphur. 

According  to  an  analysis  by  Sir  Edward  Thorpe,  it  contained 
1,047  grains  of  salts  per  gallon,  largely  in  the  form  of  chlorides 
and  carbonates  of  sodium,  calcium,  and  magnesium.  The 
sulphur  amounted  to  6-53  grains  per  gallon,  and  the  free  hydro- 
gen sulphide  to  10-16  grains. 

Other  well-known  sulphur  springs  are  at  Aix-les-Bains, 
Bareges,  and  Strathpeffer,  the  water  of  which  contains  0-026 
part  of  sodium  sulphide  per  1,000. 

The  sulphur  springs  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Aix-les-Bains,  and 
Luchon,  in  the  Pyrenees,  are  typical  of  hot  sulphurous  waters. 

YI.    Arsenical  Waters. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  they  contain  medicinal  doses  of 
arsenic,  the  waters  of  certain  special  springs  are  frequently 
prescribed  both  for  external  and  internal  use. 


24 


MINERAL   AND  AERATED   WATERS 


The  most  celebrated  of  these  springs  are  those  of  La 
Bourboule,  in  the  South  of  France,  which  contain  about  0-06 
grain  of  arsenic  per  pint. 

Other  well-known  arsenical  springs  are  those  of  Levico,  in 
South  Tyrol,  the  Guber  spring  in  Bosnia,  and  the  springs  of 
Royat  and  Roncegno. 

The  following  table  gives  the  main  constituents  of  some  of 
these  springs  in  grains  per  pint  : — 


— 

Levico. 

Gnber. 

La  Bourboule. 

Arsenious  acid 

0-0762 

0-061 

0-095 

Sodium  chloride     .  . 

0-001 

0-017 

24-91 

Ferrous  sulphate     .  . 

22-51 

3-734 

—  • 

Ferric  sulphate 

11-42 

— 

— 

Aluminium  sulphate 

5-56 

2-27 

— 

Calcium  sulphate    .  . 

3-26 

0-21 

— 

Calcium  bicarbonate 

— 

— 

1-67 

Magnesium  sulphate 
Potassium  sulphate 

3-36 
0-03 

0-22 
0-166 

0-28 
1-42 

Sodium  sulphate     .  . 

0-27 

0-037 

1-83 

Sodium  bicarbonate 

— 

— 

25-36 

Silica 

0-27 

0-65 

1-05 

Free  sulphuric  acid 

— 

0-09 

— 

Zinc  

— 

0-08 

— 

Total  solids      .  . 

• 

46-89 

7-63 

56-99 

YII.    Barium  Waters. 

BARIUM  SALTS. — In  many  natural  spring  waters  relatively 
large  quantities  of  barium  are  present  in  solution,  and  in  some 
cases  may  account  for  the  therapeutic  action  of  the  waters. 
Thus  Muspratt,  in  1867,  discovered  0-05  part  of  barium  as 
barium  oxide  in  the  water  of  the  Old  Sulphur  Well  at  Harro- 
gate,  and  it  was  still  present  in  1875,  when  Thorpe  found 
0-068  part  per  1,000. 

From  38-5  to  40-7  parts  per  100,000  of  barium  chloride  were 
found  by  White  in  deep -well  water  from  Ilkeston,  in  Derbyshire 
and  41-00  parts  of  barium  chloride  per  100,000  by  Richards  in 
the  waters  of  Boston  Spa. 

Boston  Spa  was  a  popular  inland  watering  place  at  the  close  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  but  it  was  gradually  deserted  as  Harro- 


SPAS   AND   THEIR   SPRINGS 


25 


gate  became  better  known.  At  the  time  of  the  prosperity  of 
the  spa  the  water  was  drunk  as  a  chalybeate  water,  although  it 
only  contains  1-5  parts  per  100,000  of  ferrous  carbonate. 

These  mineral  waters  containing  a  high  proportion  of  barium 
chloride  have  many  points  in  common,  their  saline  constituents 
including  much  calcium  chloride  and  magnesium  chloride, 
and  a  large  percentage  of  sodium  chloride  (e.g.,  1,084  parts  out 
of  1,271  parts  per  100,000  in  the  Boston  spa  water). 

The  Barium  Spring  of  Llangammarch. — About  the  year 
1830  a  remarkable  spring  was  discovered  by  a  peasant  in  the 
bed  of  the  River  Irvon,  which  was  then  almost  dry.  Exami- 
nation of  the  nauseous  water  showed  that  it  contained  a  large 
proportion  of  barium  and  calcium  chlorides.  After  being  used 
for  many  years  by  the  natives  for  the  treatment  of  chronic 
rheumatism,  its  fame  gradually  spread,  and  Llangammarch 
wells  are  now  celebrated  all  over  Europe.  Soon  after  its  dis- 
covery the  well  was  protected  by  a  wall  from  the  river,  but  it 
was  not  until  many  years  later,  when  the  fame  of  the  water  had 
begun  to  attract  visitors  from  outside,  that  a  pump-room  was 
built  and  the  usual  accompaniments  of  a  spa  were  provided. 

The  water,  which  is  largely  prescribed  for  heart  troubles 
and  rheumatism,  remains  remarkably  constant  in  composition, 
as  is  shown  by  the  following  analyses  made  byDupre  in  1883 
and  by  the  Lancet  in  1896  :— 


— 

1883. 
Grains  per 
gallon. 

1896. 
No.  1. 
Grains  per 
gallon. 

1896. 
No.  2. 
Grains  per 
gallon. 

Sodium  chloride 
Calcium  chloride 
Magnesium  chloride 
Calcium  carbonate.  . 
Silica  and  alumina.  . 
Bromine  as  bromide 
Lithium  chloride 
Ammonium  chloride 
Barium  chloride 

189-56 
84-56 
24-31 

2-80 
1-40 
trace 

6-26 

186-20 
85-16 
20-10 

3-34 
trace 

0-85 
0-26 
6-75 

185-90 
85-74 
20-31 

3-10 
trace 
0-91 
0-26 
6-49 

Total  Solids     

308-89 

302-66 

302-71 

26  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

In  connection  with  the  presence  of  barium  in  natural  waters 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  under  certain  conditions  both 
barium  and  sulphates  may  be  simultaneously  present.  This 
is  the  case  with  the  waters  of  Neris-les-Bains,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  which  place  several  quarries  of  fluorides  and  one  of  the 
mineral  barytes  are  being  worked. 

Experiments  made  by  Carles  l  have  shown  the  way  in  which 
this  curious  phenomenon  may  occur.  If  a  mineral  water 
contain  sulphates  and  bicarbonates,  and  an  excess  of  free 
carbon  dioxide,  it  is  capable  of  decomposing  barium  sulphate 
with  the  formation  of  a  soluble  barium  bicarbonate,  and  it  is 
probable  that  the  lead  which  is  also  present  in  Neris-les-Bains 
waters  may  owe  its  origin  to  an  analogous  cause. 

1  Ann.  Chim.  Anal,  1902,  VII  ,  p.  9. 


CHAPTER    III 

NATURAL  MINERAL  TABLE  WATERS 

IT  has  long  been  a  general  custom  in  France  and  Germany 
to  drink  some  of  the  less  saline  mineral  waters  at  the  table, 
either  alone  or  mixed  with  wine,  and  in  recent  years  the  practice 
has  gradually  become  fairly  common  in  this  country.  It  is 
only  a  certain  kind  of  mineral  water  that  is  suitable  for  this 
purpose,  since  obviously  the  proportion  of  salts  in  solution 
must  not  amount  to  a  medicinal  dose.  Hence,  of  the  older 
spa  waters,  only  those  which,  like  the  waters  of  Buxton, 
Bath  and  Malvern,  are  relatively  poor  in  mineral  constituents 
have  been  bottled  for  use  in  this  way. 

In  the  case  of  some  of  these  waters,  aeration  with  carbon 
dioxide  under  pressure  is  employed  so  as  to  render  them  more 
palatable  and  sparkling  and  to  keep  the  salts  in  solution.  This 
class  of  waters,  therefore,  forms  a  connecting-link  between  the 
strongly  saline  medicinal  mineral  waters  and  the  purely 
artificial  products  of  the  manufacturer. 

The  natural  mineral  table  waters  are  characterised  by 
containing  from  about  4  grains  to  22  grains  of  solid  constituents 
per  pint,  usually  consisting  chiefly  of  carbonates  of  sodium, 
magnesium  and  calcium,  sodium  chloride,  and  sulphates  of 
sodium  and  calcium. 

The  owners  of  most  of  the  principal  mineral  springs  of  Europe 
and  the  United  States  now  bottle  their  waters,  and  in  many 
instances  special  carbonating  plant  has  been  erected  so  as  to 
re -impregnate  the  water  with  its  own  gas. 

It  is,  therefore,  not  possible  to  draw  any  sharp  distinction 
between  the  old-fashioned  spas  where  a  "  cure  "  is  followed  by 
drinking  the  waters  and  taking  baths  upon  the  spot,  and  the 
more  modern  mineral  springs,  which  partake  more  of  the 
nature  of  a  factory  than  a  spa. 


28  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

Speaking  generally,  however,  it  may  be  said  that  as  a  rule 
the  mineral  waters  that  are  used  as  table  waters  come  from  these 
natural  mineral-water  factories  rather  than  from  the  spas  in 
the  old  sense  of  the  word. 

The  method  of  collecting  and  bottling  these  waters  will  be 
understood  from  the  following  details  concerning  the  Apol- 
linaris  spring,  for  most  of  which  the  writer  is  indebted  to  the 
courtesy  of  the  Apollinaris  Company : — 

The  Apollinaris  Spring. — The  spring  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Ahr,  in  Prussia,  was  discovered  in  the  year  1852,  and  since 
the  establishment  of  the  company,  twenty-one  years  later, 
has  steadily  risen  in  popularity.  During  the  first  year's  work 
two  million  bottles  of  the  water  were  exported,  while  last  year 
the  output  had  risen  to  thirty-seven  millions. 


FIG.  4.— General  View  of  the  Works  at  the  Apollinaris  Spring. 

The  water  issues  from  the  rock  50  feet  below  the  surface,  at 
a  temperature  of  22°  C.,  and  is  highly  charged  with  carbon 
dioxide. 

The  method  of  bottling  employed  is  to  collect  in  a  funnel- 
shaped  receptacle  as  much  as  possible  of  the  gas  emitted 
simultaneously  with  the  water,  and  to  conduct  it  into  copper 
reservoirs.  Thence  it  is  drawn  off,  and  is  forced,  under  increased 
pressure,  into  bottles  previously  charged  with  the  spring 
water.  The  process  is  thus  analogous  to  that  employed  in  the 
manufacture  of  soda  water,  the  chief  difference  being  that  the 


NATURAL    MINERAL    TABLE    WATERS  29 

gas  is  derived  from  a  natural  source  and  has  already  been  in 
association  with  the  water  itself. 

We  may  assume  that  the  water  as  contained  within  pockets 
in  the  rock  is  charged  with  the  gas  under  a  considerable 
pressure,  and  that  most  of  this  gas  escapes  upon  exposure  of 
the  water  to  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure. 

The  final  product  in  the  bottles  thus  consists  of  a  slightly 
alkaline  water  re-charged  under  pressure  with  carbon  dioxide 
derived  from  the  same  source,  so  that  it  shall  contain,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  same  proportion  of  gas  as  is  present  in  the  water 
when  it  issues  from  the  rock. 

The  composition  of  the  mineral  water  corresponds  with  that 
of  a  solution  containing  the  following  proportions  of  salts  :  — 


Analysis  by  Kyll  (1907). 


Parts  per  1,000. 


Sodium  chloride 

Sodium  sulphate 

Sodium  bicarbonate  (NaHC03) 

Calcium  bicarbonate 

Magnesium  bicarbonate    . . 

Iron  bicarbonate  [Fe  (HC03)2] 

Silicic  acid  (meta)  (H2Si03) 


Free  carbon  dioxide 

(1,124  c.c.  at  21-2°  C.  and  760  mm.  barometer. 


0-438, 
0-247, 
2-015 
0-400 

0-858 

0-084- 

0-030 

3-996 
2-042 


6-038 


During  the  bottling  process  part  of  the  iron  is  precipitated, 
while,  as  stated  above,  carbon  dioxide  that  has  separated 
from  the  water  is  re-introduced  under  pressure. 

The  water  of  the  Apollinaris  spring  is  moderately  radio- 
active, and  according  to  Kyll's  determinations  shows  about 
3-78  Mache  units  per  litre  per  hour. 

Gerolstein  Water. — A  slightly  alkaline  table  water  is  derived 
from  a  well  sunk  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Casselburg 
Castle  in  the  Eifel  Mountains.  According  to  analyses  given  by 
Ingram  and  Royle,  this  has  the  following  composition  in  grains 
per  pint  : — 


30 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


Sodium  carbonate  . . 
Calcium  carbonate .  . 
Magnesium  carbonate 
Sodium  chloride 
Sodium  sulphate     .  . 
Silica . . 


7-18 
5-00 
3-99 
2-19 
0-89 
0-73 


FIG.  5. — The  Labelling  Hall,  Apollinaris  Spring. 

Together  with  minute  quantities  of  lithium,  iron,  bromide  and 
phosphate,  and  a  trace  of  barium  (0-00078  grain),  the  total 
solid  matter  is  20-03  grains,  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas  expressed 
as  bicarbonates  is  equivalent  to  7-28  grains  per  pint. 


NATURAL   MINERAL    TABLE   WATERS 


31 


Johannis  Table  Water. — This  is  obtained  from  a  spring  which 
issues  at  a  temperature  of  50°  F.  from  a  rock  near  Aarthal,  in 
Hesse-Nassau.  Its  chief  constituents  were  found  by  Plaskuda 
to  be  as  follows  : — 


Sodium  bicarbonate 
Potassium  bicarbonate 
Calcium  bicarbonate 
Magnesium  bicarbonate 
Sodium  chloride 
Sodium  sulphate     . . 


3-19 
0-11 
6-48 
2-66 
8-95 
0-26 


Together  with  traces  of  manganese,  iron,  lithium  and  silica, 
the  total  solid  constituents  were  21-79  grains  and  the  free 
carbon  dioxide  21-33  grains  per  pint. 

Sulis  Water. — This  is  the  name  given  to  the  natural  mineral 
water  of  Bath  after  artificial  saturation  with  carbon  dioxide 
to  keep  the  iron  salts  in  solution.  The  following  analyses, 
quoted  by  Ingram  and  Royle,  show  that,  as  regards  its  solid 
mineral  constituents,  the  water  as  put  up  for  table  use  is 
practically  identical  with  that  derived  from  the  spring  : — 


—  — 

Natural  Bath 
Water. 

Aerated  Sulis 
Water. 

Grains  per  pint. 

Grains  per  pint. 

Calcium  bicarbonate 

0-98 

0-95 

Calcium  sulphate 

11-76 

11-88 

Calcium  nitrate 

0-07 

0-07 

Magnesium  bicarbonate 

1-90 

1-87 

Magnesium  chloride 

1-90 

1-87 

Sodium  chloride 

1-89 

1-92 

Sodium  sulphate 

2-89 

2-85 

Potassium  sulphate 

0-83 

0-86 

Ammonium  nitrate 

0-13 

0-11 

Ferrous  bicarbonate 

0-15 

0-14 

Silica 

0-33 

0-32 

Total  solid  constituents 

21-00 

21-02 

Tansan  Table  Water. — This  is  an  effervescent  water  derived 
from  springs  in  volcanic  rock  near  Kobe,  in  Japan.  Its  compo- 
sition, as  given  by  Ingram  and  Royle,  is  as  follows  : — Sodium 
chloride,  1-42  ;  potassium  chloride,  1-49  ;  calcium  sulphate, 


32 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


0-09  ;  calcium  carbonate,  0-59  ;  magnesium  carbonate.  0-06  ; 
iron  carbonate,  0-02  ;  and  silica,  0-28  grains.  Total  solid 
constituents,  3-95  grains  per  pint. 

Perrier  Water. — This  table  water,  which  is  extensively  used 
in  France,  is  slightly  alkaline  and  is  naturally  highly  charged 
with  carbon  dioxide.  According  to  an  analysis  made  by  Hake, 
it  contains  3-36  grains  of  solids  per  pint,  consisting  of  2-37 
grains  of  calcium  carbonate,  0-38  grain  of  calcium  sulphate, 
0-22  grain  of  sodium  chloride,  and  0-21  grain  of  silica,  with 
minute  quantities  of  iron,  magnesium,  and  nitrate. 

St.  Galmier. — Still  more  popular  French  mineral  waters  are 
those  from  the  different  springs  of  St.  Galmier,  which  are 
now  under  the  control  of  one  company.  The  total  sales  of 
these  waters  are  stated  to  exceed  a  hundred  million  litres  per 
year. 

The  following  analyses  of  the  water  from  three  of  the 
St.  Galmier  wells  are  quoted  by  Ingram  and  Royle  :— 




"Romaines" 
Spring. 

"Badoit" 
Spring. 

"Noel" 
Spring. 

Sodium  bicarbonate 

5-91 

4-90 

2-62 

Magnesium  bicarbonate 
Calcium  bicarbonate 

7'18 
10-08 

f    12-60    j 

3-19 

5-86 

Potassium  bicarbonate 

7-90 

0-18 

— 

Sodium  sulphate  .  . 

0-13 

(    i.75    1 

1-05 

Calcium  sulphate 

0-30 

(    17°    ) 

0-62 

Magnesium  sulphate 

0-15 

— 

Sodium  chloride    .  . 

0-74 

— 

0-58 

Magnesium  chloride 
Calcium  chloride  .  . 

0-24 
0-34 

4-20 

— 

Aluminium  silicate 

— 

1-17 

— 

Total  solids 

— 

24-80 

13-92 

Free  carbon  dioxide 

27-14 

42-90 

— 

Eosbach  Water. — This  table  water,  which  is  obtained  from  a 
spring  near  Homburg,  is  alkaline  and  salt,  and  is  naturally 
saturated  with  carbon  dioxide.  An  analysis  made  by  Sir 
Charles  Cameron  showed  that  the  water  contained  15-11 


NATURAL   MINERAL   TABLE    WATERS  3:3 

grains  of  mineral  solids  per  pint,  composed  of  10' 29  grains  of 
sodium  chloride  ;  3-12  grains  of  calcium  carbonate  ;  1-63  grains 
of  magnesium  carbonate  ;  0-07  grain  of  magnesium  chloride, 
with  traces  of  calcium  sulphate,  iron,  silica,  etc. 

Taunus  Water,  which  comes  from  a  spring  near  Frankfort, 
is  very  popular  in  Germany  as  a  table  water.  It  contains 
a  somewhat  high  proportion  of  mineral  solids,  mainly  chlorides 
of  sodium  and  potassium,  and  bicarbonate  of  calcium,  and  is 
saturated  with  carbon  dioxide. 

An  analysis  by  Taylor  gave  the  following  results  : — Total 
solids,  39-06  ;  containing  sodium  chloride,  22-49  ;  potassium 
chloride,  2-36  ;  calcium  bicarbonate,  11-99  ;  magnesium 
bicarbonate,  1-54  ;  sodium  bicarbonate,  0-17  ;  and  calcium 
sulphate,  0-51  grains  per  pint ;  together  with  traces  of  silica, 
aluminium,  and  calcium  phosphate. 

Sellers  Water. — The  history  of  the  Ober-Selters  Spring,  in 
Nassau,  is  curious.  During  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  in 
great  repute,  and  was  the  water  of  which  the  modern  French 
water  (Eau  de  Seltz)  was  originally  an  imitation.  After  the 
year  1794  its  popularity  had  declined  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
spring  was  abandoned,  and  it  was  not  until  the  year  1870  that 
the  increasing  demand  for  sparkling  mineral  waters  caused  the 
spring  to  be  re-opened  and  works  put  up  for  bottling  the 
water. 

The  water  issues  from  the  rock  at  a  temperature  of  53°  F.,  and 
is  so  highly  charged  with  carbon  dioxide  that  it  is  bottled  as  it 
leaves  the  spring,  any  artificial  process  of  carbonating  being 
quite  unnecessary. 

According  to  Mohr's  analysis,  it  has  the  following  compo- 
sition : — Total  mineral  matter,  32-54  grains ;  consisting  of 
potassium  sulphate,  20-38  ;  sodium  bicarbonate,  7-31  ;  calcium 
bicarbonate,  2-15  ;  magnesium  bicarbonate,  1-77  ;  and  silica, 
0-46  grains  per  pint ;  together  with  small  quantities  of  iron, 
manganese,  aluminium,  arsenious  acid,  boric  acid,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  bromine.  The  gases  consisted  of  91-2  per  cent,  of 
carbon  dioxide,  7-9  per  cent,  of  nitrogen,  and  0-9  per  cent,  of 
oxygen. 

Sellers  Water  (Nieder),  from  a  spring  near  the  village  of  Nieder- 

M.W.  n 


84       MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

Sellers,  is  also  an  alkaline  table  water  containing  about  39 
grains  of  total  solids  per  pint,  consisting  mainly  of  sodium 
chloride,  20-47  ;  sodium  bicarbonate,  10«84  ;  calcium  car- 
bonate, 3-9  ;  and  manganese  carbonate,  2-7  grains ;  with 
minute  quantities  of  many  other  salts. 

In  addition  to  these  typical  table  waters  mention  may  also 
be  made  of  Malvern  table  water,  which  contains  6-5  grains  of 
mineral  solids  per  pint  (mainly  carbonates  of  sodium,  calcium 
and  magnesium,  sodium  chloride,  and  a  trace  of  sodium  iodide) ; 
and  of  the  Buxton  water,  which  in  addition  to  its  medicinal 
uses  is  also  bottled  for  table  purposes. 


CHAPTER    IV 

THERMAL  SPRINGS  AND  RADIO-ACTIVITY — TEMPERATURES- 
HELIUM  AND  NITON  IN  MINERAL  WATERS — MEASUREMENT 
OF  RADIO-ACTIVITY — ARTIFICIAL  RADIO-ACTIVE  MINERAL 
WATERS 

Thermal  Springs  and  Radio-activity. — Although  most  of  the 
mineral  waters  that  issue  from  the  earth  at  a  high  temperature 
have  been  mentioned  under  various  other  headings,  they  are  so 
often  grouped  apart  as  "  thermal  waters  "  that  they  may  be 
conveniently  regarded  as  a  separate  class  from  this  point  of 
view.  They  are  prescribed  both  for  baths  and  for  drinking, 
and,  as  is  mentioned  below,  the  results  have  been  ascribed  to  a 
particular  form  of  heat. 

The  following  list  shows  the  temperature  of  the  water  of 
some  of  the  best-known  thermal  springs  : — 

Deg.  F.  Deg.  F. 

Buxton  ..  ..  80—82  Aix-la-Chapelle    ..  113—140 

Teplitz  ..  ..  101—120  Carlsbad    ..          ..  119—138 

Bath  ..  ..  108—122  Bourbonne  ..  114—149 

Lucca  . .  . .  108—122  Caldas  (Barcelona)  153—158 

Temperature  of  Mineral  Springs. — The  high  temperature  of 
such  springs  as  these  has  been  made  the  subject  of  various 
ingenious  speculations.  In  some  cases  volcanic  action  affords 
a  probable  explanation  of  the  heat  of  the  water,  as,  for 
example,  the  hot  springs  of  the  Auvergne  district  and  the 
geysers  of  Iceland. 

Gairdner,  in  his  book  upon  natural  mineral  water,1  gives  a 
series  of  tables,  in  which  it  is  shown  that  out  of  ninety -nine 
hot  springs  in  Europe  and  America,  no  less  than  twenty-five 
issue  from  rocks  of  volcanic  origin  and  thirty-five  from  rocks  of 
primitive  formation. 

1  Essay  on  Thermal  and  Mineral  Springs,  by  Meredith  Gairdner,  M.D.,  1832. 

D2 


36  MINERAL   AND   AERATED    WATERS 

Granville  was  the  first  to  put  forward  the  theory  that  the 
heat  in  these  thermal  springs  was  of  different  origin  to  ordinary 
solar  heat,  and  that  the  peculiar  therapeutic  effects  of  such 
waters  must  be  attributed  to  the  nature  of  their  inherent  heat. 
"  If  you  were  to  boil  a  Wildbad  bath,"  he  remarks,  "  after 
a  day's  exposure  to  the  air,  does  anybody  suppose  that  the 
effect  would  be  the  same  on  the  human  body  as  when  the  water 
employed  is  oozing  from  the  rock  ?  Most  certainly  not." 

The  experiment,  he  points  out,  had  already  been  tried  on 
a  large  scale  in  the  case  of  the  hot  springs  of  Carlsbad,  Baden- 
Baden  and  Bath,  and  had  utterly  failed  ;  and  although  at  one 
time  the  waters  from  these  springs  had  been  bottled  and  sent 
all  over  the  world,  this  was  no  longer  attempted  at  the  time 
when  he  was  writing  (1843). 

To  the  impossibility  of  substituting  artificial  heat  for  what 
he  termed  telluric  heat  in  hot  spring  waters,  Granville  also 
attributed  the  inferiority  of  Struve's  artificial  Ems  and 
Carlsbad  waters,  made  in  Brighton,  as  compared  with  the 
natural  waters  at  the  fountain-head. 

On  the  other  hand,  Muspratt,  writing  in  the  year  1860, 
remarked  : — "  About  forty  years  ago,  when  the  fabrication 
of  mineral  and  spa  waters  commenced,  a  very  violent  opposition 
arose  with  regard  to  them,  especially  from  the  members  of 
the  faculty.  They  were  said  to  be  devoid  of  all  the  good 
qualities  of  the  natural  ones — to  be  minus  a  certain  conditio 
sine  qua  non  in  the  shape  of  a  spiritus  rectus  or  vital  force, 
which  imparted  the  medicinal  properties.  The  Editor  has 
lived  to  see  such  statements  reversed.  Chemistry,  the  great 
revealer  of  hidden  treasures,  has  demonstrated  to  a  certainty 
what  the  constituents  of  the  natural  waters  are,  and  thus  one 
is  now  enabled  to  produce  artificial  waters  quite  equal,  if  not 
superior,  to  the  natural  ones." 

As  has  happened  in  so  many  other  cases,  the  negative 
"  certainty  "  of  one  generation  has  been  shaken  by  the  dis- 
coveries of  the  next.  In  the  light  of  the  striking  demonstration 
by  Sir  William  Ramsay  of  the  radio-activity  of  the  waters  of 
Bath,  it  seems  probable  that  this  mysterious  "  vital  force  " 
has  been  discovered. 


''1VS  fffSTTTf/1 

• 


TEMPERATURE   OF   MINERAL    SPRINGS      .^87 

33/T 

In  fact,  Muspratt  himself  was  not  always  so  positive  as  in 
the  passage  quoted  above,  for  in  another  place  he  speaks 
of  "  a  certain  mystery  connected  with  the  origin  and  mode  of 
operation  of  some  mineral  waters,"  and  continues  : — "  Many 
of  these  waters,  and  especially  the  thermal  ones — Buxton 
et  cetera — produce  effects  in  general  estimation  far  beyond 
what  can  be  accounted  for  by  their  chemical  composition  and 
the  power  of  their  known  ingredients,  or  by  their  temperature 
as  shown  by  the  thermometer  in  comparison  with  those  of 
ordinary  water  baths." 

The  recent  discovery  that  radio-active  properties  are 
associated  with  the  gases  argon,  helium,  and  niton  in  mineral 
waters  has  opened  up  a  fresh  field  of  speculation  as  to  the 
origin  of  the  heat  of  hot  springs.  While  in  some  cases  volcanic 
action  may  still  supply  the  explanation,  in  others  the  dis- 
integration of  radium  is  regarded  as  a  more  probable  cause. 

Thus,  Dr.  Julius  Weszelsky  has  asserted  that  he  has  grounds 
for  concluding  that  the  celebrated  hot  springs  of  Ofen  owe  their 
temperature  to  the  presence  of  huge  deposits  of  radium  below 
the  town  of  Budapest.  This  assertion,  however,  stands  in  need 
of  corroboration,  although  it  is  significant  that  the  gases 
emitted  by  certain  hot  springs  in  different  parts  of  the  world 
contain  appreciable  quantities  of  helium  and  niton,  the 
formation  of  which  from  radium  involves  the  liberation  of  heat. 

The  property  of  radio-activity  appears  to  be  widely  distri- 
buted in  spring  waters  all  over  the  world,  and  where  its  amount 
is  considerable  frequently  occurs  in  association  with  uranium 
deposits  in  the  vicinity  of  the  well,  as,  for  example,  in  the  mining 
districts  in  Saxony.  This  is  not  an  invariable  rule,  however, 
for  strongly  radio-active  springs  are  known,  in  which  the 
source  of  the  radium  cannot  be  so  easily  traced. 

Helium  and  Niton. — The  first  discovery  of  helium  in  a 
mineral  water  was  made  in  1895  by  Lord  Rayleigh,  a  few  years 
after  the  discovery  of  the  element  itself. 

Tt  was  shown  to  be  present  in  the  gases  escaping  from  the 
King's  Well  at  Bath  in  the  proportion  of  1-2  parts  per  1,000, 
but  the  significance  of  the  fact  was  not  made  clear,  until  in 


' 

MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


38 


1903  there  came  the  striking  discovery  by  Sir  William  Ramsay 
and  Mr.  Soddy.  that  helium  was  a  product  of  the  disintegration 
of  radium,  and  that  its  presence  in  the  water  was  thus  an 
indication  of  radio-activity. 

The  presence  of  radium  itself  was  detected  by  the  Hon. 
R.  J.  Strutt  both  in  the  waters  of  Bath  and  in  the  deposits 
from  the  hot  springs,  and  this  has  been  followed  by  the  recent 
estimation  by  Ramsay  of  the  amount  of  niton  in  different 
waters  of  Bath,  and  the  natural  gases  given  off  by  them.1 

The  gas  from  the  King's  Well  was  estimated  to  amount  to 
4,927  litres  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  consisted  of  360  parts  of 
carbon  dioxide  and  9,640  parts  of  nitrogen,  etc.,  per  10,000. 
There  was  no  oxygen,  hydrogen,  or  marsh  gas. 

The  nitrogen  contained  73-63  per  cent,  of  argon,  23-34  per 
cent,  of  neon,  and  2-97  percent,  of  helium.  The  pump-room 
water  contained  in  solution  18-5  parts  of  gas  per  1,000,  consist- 
ing of  6-9  parts  of  carbon  dioxide  and  11-6  parts  of  nitrogen,  etc. 

The  inert  gases  argon,  neon,  and  helium  have  also  been  found 
in  numerous  other  spring  waters  in  England  and  on  the 
Continent,  and  they  appear  always  to  occur  in  association 
with  niton  (radium  emanation). 

Thus  in  the  case  of  three  of  the  well-known  thermal  springs 
at  Wiesbaden,  the  gases  contained  in  the  waters  were  found  by 
Henrich2  to  have  the  following  percentage  composition  :— 




Kochbrunnen. 

Adlerquelle. 

Schutzen- 
hofquelle. 

Carbon     dioxide     (absorbed     by 

KOH)     

84-8 

77-6 

32-4 

Oxygen       

0°2 

1-2 

0-2 

Nitrogen 

12-7 

18'4 

62-05 

Methane 

0-6 

0-8 

0-45 

Argon,    neon,    helium,    etc.,  and 

radium  emanation 

1-7 

2-0 

4-9 

100-0 

100-0 

100-0 

Temperature  of  the  Spring 

68-7°  C. 

64-6°  C. 

49-2°  C. 

1  Chem.  News,  1912,  CV.,  p.  134. 

2  Ber.  d.  d.  Chem.  Ges.,  1908,  XLL,  p.  4,196. 


HELIUM   AND   NITON   IN    SPRINCiS 


89 


The  composition  of  the  gases  varied  in  an  irregular  fashion  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year. 

It  is  probable  that  the  gases  have  their  origin  in  rocks  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  springs,  judging  by  the  fact  that 
fragments  of  the  rocks,  when  heated,  emitted  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
helium,  and  argon.  The  oxygen  would  be  absorbed  by  the 
ferrous  carbonate  in  the  water. 

Some  of  the  French  mineral  springs  give  off  natural  gases 
particularly  rich  in  helium.  For  example,  the  following 
results  have  recently  been  obtained  by  Moureu  and  Lepape  l  in 
the  examination  of  certain  well-known  waters  : — 


Per  cent,  of 

Yield  in  litres 

i  per  annum. 

Natural  Gas. 

Natural  Gas. 

Helium. 

Sautenay  (<V>to  d'Or)  — 
Source  Lithium 
.,       Carnot  .  . 
,,       Fontaine-Salee 

10-16 
9-97 

8-40 

51,000 
179,000 

5,182 
17,845 

Maizieres  (Cote  d'Or)  — 
Source  Romaine    .  . 

5-92 

18,250 

1,080 

Grisy  (Satme-et-Loire)  — 
Source  d'  Ys. 

2-18 

— 

— 

Bourbon-Lancy  — 
Source  du  Lymbe 

1-84 

545,500 

10,074 

Neris  (Allier)— 
Source  Cesar 

0-97 

3,504,000 

33,990 

La  Bourboule  (Puy-de-D6me)  — 
Source  Clioussy 

0-1 

30,484,800 

3,048 

Assuming  the  helium  to  have  been  originally  derived  from 
the  disintegration  of  radio-active  substances,  these  French 
chemists  consider  that  it  probably  consists  of  dissolved  helium 

1  Compf.es  Rendus,  1912,  CLV.,  p.  197. 


40 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED    WATERS 


taken  up  by  the  water  at  some  former  period  from  surrounding 
minerals,  since  the  quantities  are  too  large  to  be  attributed  to 
recent  nascent  helium  emitted  immediately  after  its  production. 
It  is  pointed  out  as  a  curious  fact  that  these  and  similar 
springs,  rich  in  helium,  are  approximately  upon  a  line  drawn 
through  the  towns  of  Vesoul,  Dijon,  and  Moulins. 

Measurement  of   Radio-activity   in   Mineral   Waters. — The 

general  methods  of  measuring  the  radio-activity  of  radium 
and  other  radio-active  bodies  are  based  upon  two  principles — 
viz.,  (1)  the  measurement  of  the  y-rays  emitted  by  a  given 
weight  of  the  substance,  by  means  of  a  sensitive  electro- 
scope ;  (2)  the  measurement  of  the  emanation  emitted  within  a 
given  time  from  a  definite  weight  of  the  substance. 

In  applying  these  methods 
to  the  valuation  of  the  radio- 
activity of  natural  mineral 
waters,  the  amount  of  emana- 
tion contained  in  a  litre  of  the 
water  is  first  determined.  It 
is  then  distributed  throughout 
a  definite  volume  of  air,  which 
may  be  made  to  circulate 
through  the  liquid  until  fully 
charged  with  emanation,  after 
which  the  effect  of  this  air 
upon  a  sensitive  electroscope 


FIG.  6. — Henrich's  Apparatus  for 
measuring  Radio-activity. 


is  ascertained,  and  the  fall  in 

potential  during  sixty  minutes  is  measured  and  calculated  into 
the  corresponding  electrostatic  units.  This  value  multiplied 
by  the  factor  1,000  gives  what  are  termed  the  "  Mache  units." 

A  form  of  special  apparatus  devised  by  Henrich1  for  this 
purpose  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  where  A  repre- 
sents an  Elster-Geitel  electroscope  ;  B,  a  pressure  bulb  ;  C,  a 
Woulff's  bottle,  holding  about  1-5  litres  ;  D,  a  calcium  chloride 
tube  to  dry  the  air  ;  and  E,  a  tube  filled  with  fine  wire. 

A  blank  test  is  first  made  with  distilled  water  to  ascertain  the 

1  Ze.it.  angew.  Chem.,  1910,  XXIII.,  p.  340. 


MEASUREMENT   OF   RADIO-ACTIVITY  41 

degree  of  leakage  of  air  from  the  apparatus,  and  this  is  followed 
by  an  experiment  upon  the  mineral  water  itself.  The  "  induced 
activity  "  is  found  by  a  third  measurement,  in  which  the 
influence  of  the  air  of  the  room  upon  the  electroscope  is 
ascertained. 

For  details  as  to  the  calculations  the  reader  may  be  referred 
to  the  original  paper. 

In  most  cases  the  radio-activity  of  natural  waters  is  not  very 
high.  According  to  the  measurements  recently  made  by 
Landin,1  the  most  radio-active  water  known  is  that  yielded  by 
an  old  Roman  well  in  the  Island  of  Ischia,  which  shows  an 
activity  of  30,800  units. 

The  values  obtained  with  the  waters  from  other  mineral 
springs  were  as  follows  :— 

Units. 
Joachim sthal  Spring      . .  .  .  .  .        14,000 

Grabenb&cker  Spring 1-2,000—14,000 

Biittel  Spring,  Baden 9,000—10,000 

Porla  Spring,  Sweden     .  .  .  .  . .  800 

Hog  Spring,  Sweden 500 — 600 

The  objection  to  this  method  of  measuring  radio-activity  in 
mineral  waters  is  that  it  is  based  upon  an  arbitrary  standard, 
and  demands  the  use  of  a  particular  apparatus  and  mode  of 
working. 

By  Sir  William  Ramsay's  method  the  actual  amounts  of 
radium  and  its  emanation  (niton)  are  estimated,  the  niton 
being  calculated  into  the  corresponding  quantity  of  its  parent 
radium  which  would  have  produced  it. 

In  the  disintegration  of  radium  one  atom  of  helium  is  thrown 
off  in  the  form  of  a-rays,  and  a  gaseous  residue,  originally 
termed  "  radium  emanation,"  but  now  recognised  as  a  distinct 
element,  niton,  is  left.  In  this  change,  two  other  kinds  of  rays, 
known  respectively  as  8-  and  y-rays,  are  emitted.  Unlike  the 
a-rays  (or  helium),  these  rays  possess  great  penetrative  proper- 
ties, and  are  capable  of  traversing  layers  of  metal  of  consider- 
able thickness.  The  y-rays,  in  particular,  will  readily  pass 
through  a  thick  screen  of  lead,  and  advantage  is  taken  of  this 
property  in  separating  them  from  the  other  rays. 

1  Chem.  Zeit.,  1910,  XXXIV.  (Rep.),  p.  102. 


42       MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

It  is  to  the  emission  of  these  ft-  and  y-rays  that  the  therapeutic 
action  of  radium  and  of  niton  is  to  be  attributed. 

Niton  itself  also  undergoes  disintegration  in  the  course  of  a 
few  days,  with  the  successive  formation  of  a  series  of  products 
termed  radium  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  and  G,  the  last  of  which  is 
regarded  as  being  probably  identical  with  lead. 

This  method  of  expressing  the  radio-activity  of  waters  and 
natural  gas  in  terms  of  the  amount  of  radium  equivalent  to  the 
quantity  of  niton  found  is  best  made  clear  by  quoting  Sir 
William  Ramsay's  words  l  : — "  Suppose  1  gramme  of  radium  to 
be  dissolved  in  water,  say  as  chloride  or  bromide.  It  is  con- 
tinually giving  off  niton  ;  but  at  the  same  time,  the  niton  is  as 
continuously  disappearing,  owing  to  the  formation  of  radium 
A,  B,  C,  and  D.  There  will  arrive  a  time  when  the  production  of 
niton  from  the  radium  will  have  ceased  to  increase,  because  as 
it  is  produced  it  decays,  and  the  rate  of  production  is  then  equal 
to  the  rate  of  decay.  The  amount  of  niton  will  therefore 
increase  up  to  a  certain  point  ;  that  point  is  when  6-6  of  a 
cubic  millimetre  of  niton  has  been  produced.  The  weight 
of  1  cubic  millimetre  of  niton  is  almost  exactly  x^o^h  °f  a 
milligramme  ;  hence  0-6  cubic  millimetre  weighs  y^^ths  of  a 
milligramme.  This  is  the  weight  of  the  niton,  which  is 
in  equilibrium  with  1  gramme  of  metallic  radium." 

Estimated  by  this  method,  the  following  results  were  obtained 
in  the  examination  of  the  waters  of  Bath  : — 


Radium  in  the  water  of  the  King's  Well  . 
Niton  (radium  emanation)  in  King's  Well 
Niton  ,,  „  Cross  Bath 

Niton          „  „  Hetling  Bath    , 

Niton          ,,       in  gas  from  King's  Well 


Milligrammes  per 
million  litres. 


0-1387 
1-732 
1-192 
1-702 


33-65 


The  Buxton  water  is  also  radio-active,  as  is  shown  by  the 
recent  determinations  of  Makower,3  who  found  niton  in  the  pro- 

1  Chem.  News,  1912,  CV.,  p.  135. 

2  These  figures  are  the  weights  of  radium  capable  of  forming  the  amounts  of 
niton  found. 

3  Chem.  News,  1912,  CV.,  p.  135. 


MEASUREMENT    OF   RADIO-ACTIVITY  43 

portion  of  0-83  milligramme  per  million  litres  in  water  from  the 
Hospital  Natural  Baths  and  the  Crescent  Pump-room,  Buxton, 
while  the  water  from  the  "  Gentlemen's  Natural  Baths  " 
yielded  1-1  milligramme. 

The  gas  emitted  naturally  by  the  Buxton  Springs  contained 
from  7-7  to  8-5  milligrammes  of  niton  per  million  litres.  All 
these  figures  represent  the  quantities  of  radium  capable  of 
forming  the  volume  of  niton  found  (Cf.  p.  37). 

Artificial  Radio-active  Mineral  Waters. — It  is  possible  to 
obtain  mineral  waters  of  any  desired  degree  of  radio-activity 
by  immersing  therein  an  insoluble  compound  of  radium,  until 
the  water  is  sufficiently  charged. 

According  to  Landin,1  a  suitable  radio-active  strength  for 
mineral  waters  for  drinking  purposes  is  10,000  units,  and  for 
baths  200,000  units.  The  radio-activity  of  these  prepared 
waters  is  estimated  by  the  method  outlined  on  a  preceding 
page  (p.  40). 

Quite  recently  bottles  of  special  construction,  containing 
artificial  radio-active  mineral  waters,  have  been  put  upon  the 
market  in  Sweden. 

It  has  frequently  been  asserted  that  artificial  mineral  waters 
prepared  from  mixtures  of  salts  strictly  corresponding  to  the 
analysis  of  natural  spring  waters  do  not  produce  the  same 
medicinal  effects  as  the  natural  products.  In  the  light  of 
recent  investigation  it  seems  probable  that  the  more  pronounced 
therapeutic  action  of  the  latter  may  be  due  partially,  at  all 
events,  to  their  containing  radio-active  bodies.  For  further 
particulars  of  the  methods  of  preparing  these  artificially  radio- 
active products  see  p.  83. 

i  C/iem.  Zc.lt.,  1910,  XXXIV.  (Rep.),  p.  102. 


CHAPTER    V 

CARBON  DIOXIDE — ITS  PREPARATION,  PROPERTIES,  AND  USES 
IN  THE  MINERAL  WATER  FACTORY 

*^ 

Nature  of  Carbon  Dioxide. — A  supply  of  pure  carbon  dioxide 
under  pressure  is  one  of  the  main  essentials  of  the  mineral  water 
industry,  and  the  artificial  preparation  of  the  gas,  which  until 
a  relatively  recent  date  was  almost  entirely  restricted  to 
soda-water  manufacturers,  is  now  being  carried  out  on  a  large 
scale  to  an  increasing  extent — in  some  cases  as  a  means  of 
utilising  the  by-products  of  other  industries. 

Carbon  dioxide,  or,  as  it  is  more  popularly  termed,  carbonic 
acid,  is  a  compound  of  one  atom  of  carbon  with  two  atoms  of 
oxygen. 

Historically  ii^  is  of  interest  as  being  the  first  gas  to  be 
recognised  as  distinct  from  ordinary  air.  To  the  elder  van 
Helmont  is  due  the  credit  of  the  discovery  of  the  preparation  of 
the  gas  from  burning  wood  and  from  mineral  carbonates 
treated  with  acid,  while  its  property  of  combining  with  caustic 
(or  fixed)  alkalies,  which  was  discovered  by  Black,  suggested 
the  name  of  "  fixed  air,"  by  which,  for  many  years,  it  was 
known. 

It  was  also  termed  "  mephitic  air,"  when  its  identity  with 
the  poisonous  exhalation  in  caverns  became  known  and  its 
property  of  extinguishing  both  life  and  flame  was  recognised. 

For  a  long  period  it  was  considered  to  be  an  individual 
substance,  and  it  was  not  until  1781  that  its  real  nature  as  a 
compound  of  carbon  and  oxygen  was  proved  by  Lavoisier. 

Occurrence. — Carbon  dioxide  in  the  free  state  occurs  in  the 
atmosphere  to  the  extent  of  about  4  parts  in  10,000,  and  is 
emitted  abundantly  from  volcanic  fissures  all  over  the  world. 
It  is  also  present  in  solution  in  natural  water,  and  in  some 
mineral  waters,  such  as  those  of  Selters,  Vichy,  and  the 


CARBON   DIOXIDE  45 

Apolliiiaris  Spring,  is  present  under  pressure,  so  that  the  water 
effervesces  when  the  pressure  is  released  by  the  escape  of  the 
water  from  the  rock.  A  description  of  the  character  and 
methods  of  bottling  these  naturally  super-carbonated  mineral 
waters  will  be  found  on  a  subsequent  page. 

In  the  case  of  other  springs  the  gas  pours  forth  in  a  copious 
torrent  from  the  water,  as,  for  example,  at  Franzensbrunn, 
near  Eger,  in  Polterbrunnen. 

The  most  celebrated  instance  of  the  exhalation  of  carbon 
dioxide  through  fissures  in  the  rock  in  volcanic  areas  is  in  the 
Grotto  del  Cane,  at  Naples,  where  a  constant  layer  of  the  gas 
is  present  to  the  depth  of  2  or  3  feet. 

Another  famous  spot  where  carbon  dioxide  collects  in  this 
way  is  the  "  Valley  of  Death,"  in  Java.  This  is  a  deep  valley 
that  was  once  the  crater  of  an  active  volcano.  Here  the  gas 
is  poured  forth  from  time  to  time  from  fissures  in  the  ground, 
and  at  such  periods  it  means  death  for  any  animal  that  is 
tempted  to  enter  the  valley. 

In  its  combined  state  as  carbonate,  carbon  dioxide  forms  one 
of  the  principal  constituents  of  the  structural  materials  of  the 
globe.  The  volcanic  rocks  are  continually  absorbing  the  gas 
from  the  air  and  forming  soluble  carbonates,  which  are  dis- 
solved by  rivers  and  pass  into  the  sea,  where  they  are  taken 
up  by  animal  and  vegetable  organisms,  and  again  deposited  in 
the  form  of  precipitated  carbonates  of  calcium  and  magnesium. 

Some  conception  of  the  vast  extent  of  the  deposits  of 
limestone  and  the  like  thus  produced  may  be  formed  from 
the  calculation  of  Hogbom,  that  these  rocks  upon  the  surface 
of  the  earth  contain  over  25,000  times  the  quantity  of  carbon 
dioxide  found  in  the  air. 

Another  means  by  which  the  gas  is  removed  from  the  atmo- 
sphere is  by  the  action  of  plants,  which  breathe  in  carbon 
dioxide  and  decompose  it  through  the  agency  of  sunlight, 
retaining  the  carbon  and  giving  off  the  oxygen. 

Properties. — At  the  ordinary  temperature  and  pressure, 
carbon  dioxide  is  a  colourless  gas  with  a  sourish  taste  and 
odour.  Its  weight,  as  compared  with  an  equal  volume  of 


MINEEAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


hydrogen,  is  about  22,  and  as  it  is  thus  heavier  than  air  it  may 
be  collected  by  pouring  it  downwards  into  a  jar,  from  which  it 
will  at  once  displace  the  air. 

Solubility  of  Carbon  Dioxide.  -  It  is  soluble  in  about  its  own 
volume  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  15*5°  C.  (60°  F.),  the 
solubility  decreasing  rapidly  with  the  rise  in  temperature. 

Its  "  absorption  coefficient,"  or,  in  other  words,  that  volume 
of  the  gas  (reduced  to  standard  temperature  (0°  C.)  and  pressure 
(760  mm.))  which  is  absorbed  by  1  c.c.  of  a  liquid  at  standard 
pressure  at  a  given  temperature,  is  shown  in  the  following 
table,  which  gives  the  corresponding  values  for  carbon  dioxide, 
oxygen,  and  nitrogen  at  various  temperatures  ;— 

ABSORPTION   COEFFICIENTS. 


— 

o°c. 

10°  C. 

20°  C. 

30°  C. 

r>(  f  C. 

C.c. 

C.c. 

C.c. 

C.c. 

C.c. 

Carbon  dioxide 

1-7134 

1-194 

0-878 

0-665 

0-436 

Oxygen 

0-0489 

0-0297 

0-031 

0-026 

— 

Nitrogen          .  .          .  . 

0-0239       0-0196 

0-0164 

0-0138 

0-0106 

The  solubility  is  now  more  commonly  expressed  in  terms  of 
Ostwald's  "  coefficient  of  solubility,"  which  represents  that 
volume  of  a  gas  which  is  dissolved  by  one  volume  of  the  liquid 
at  a  definite  temperature. 

At  zero  the  two  modes  of  expressing  the  solubility  will  give 
the  same  result,  while  for  other  temperatures  the  relationship 
between  the  "  coefficient  of  solubility."  x,  and  the  "  absorption 
coefficient,"  y,  may  be  calculated  by  means  of  the  formula 

x        (273    I    t) 

-  =       27^*       3  where  t  represents  the  temperature  of  the  liquid 

y 

in  degrees  Centigrade. 

Under  pressures  below  about  four  atmospheres,  the  law  of 
Henry  holds  good  for  the  solubility  of  carbon  dioxide  in  water 
— i.e.,  the  amount  of  the  gas  absorbed  by  water  at  a  definite 
temperature  varies  in  proportion  to  the  pressure  of  the  gas.  At 
higher  pressures,  however,  the  solubility  of  carbon  dioxide  in 
water  is  lower  than  that  required  by  the  law. 


CARBON  nioxrni:  47 

Thus,  for  example,  Wroblewski  found  that  water  at  12-5°  C. 
dissolved  the  following  proportions  of  carbon  dioxide  under 
increasing  pressures  : — 

Pressure  in  Atmospheres     .  .  1.  5.  10.          20.          30. 

Solubility 1-086        5'15        9-65       17'11      23'2o 

The  practical  bearing  of  these  factors,  of  pressure  and 
temperature  upon  the  solubility  of  carbon  dioxide,  will  be  seen 
later  in  considering  the  question  of  the  pressures  for  bottling 
aerated  liquids. 

Carbon  Dioxide  from  Carbonates. — Until  within  the  last  few 
years,  the  carbon  dioxide  used  in  mineral  water  factories  was 
almost  invariably  obtained  by  the  interaction  of  an  acid  and  a 
carbonate. 

In  America,  coarse  white  marble  dust  was  the  favourite  raw 
material,  while  in  England  the  preference  was  given  to  whiting 
or  sodium  bicarbonate,  the  latter  of  which  yields  a  very  pure 
carbon  dioxide,  and  has  the  advantage  of  leaving  a  soluble 
carbonate  in  the  generator. 

The  objection  to  the  use  of  marble  is  that  it  frequently  con- 
tains iron  and  bituminous  impurities,  which  in  the  decomposi- 
tion with  the  acid  yield  hydrogen  and  volatile  vapours  of 
unpleasant  odour.  This  is  more  liable  to  occur  with  black 
than  with  white  marble. 

Another  and  less  pure  form  of  calcium  carbonate  sometimes 
used  as  the  raw  material  for  the  gas  is  whiting  (purified  chalk). 
It  requires  to  be  mixed  with  a  larger  proportion  of  water  than 
does  marble,  and  thus  entails  the  use  of  larger  apparatus. 
The  evolution  of  the  gas  is  more  violent,  and  the  gas  itself  is 
liable  to  contain  more  impurities. 

Both  marble  and  whiting  have  the  drawback  of  leaving  in 
the  generator  an  insoluble  mass  of  gypsum,  of  which  it  is  not 
always  an  easy  matter  to  dispose. 

Other  carbonates  which  were  used  in  certain  places,  and  are 
probably  still  employed  where  they  can  be  obtained  plentifully 
in  a  relatively  pure  condition,  are  magnesite,  a  carbonate  of 
magnesium  (containing  52  per  cent,  of  carbon  dioxide)  and 
purified  limestone. 


48       MINEEAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

Sodium  bicarbonate  (containing  52-4  per  cent,  of  combined 
carbon  dioxide)  is  extensively  used  in  this  country,  but  in 
America  is  regarded  as  too  expensive  except  for  the  highest 
grade  of  mineral  waters. 

The  acids  used  for  the  decomposition  of  the  selected  carbon- 
ate are  sulphuric  acid,  sold  under  the  name  of  oil  of  vitriol, 
and  hydrochloric  acid,  sold  as  muriatic  acid. 

Both  acids,  if  not  carefully  purified,  are  liable  to  contain 
traces  of  volatile  bodies  that  will  impart  an  unpleasant  flavour 
to  the  gas,  and  this  is  particularly  the  case  with  hydrochloric 
acid.  The  impurities  in  the  latter  acid  are  much  more  difficult 
to  remove  from  the  gas  by  washing,  and  for  this  reason 
sulphuric  acid  has  always  been  preferred. 

Whatever  the  acid  used,  an  addition  of  water  is  made  to  the 
carbonate  in  the  generator  before  the  sulphuric  or  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  introduced,  and  the  proportion  is  so  calculated  as 
to  leave  a  small  excess  of  alkali  in  the  residue. 

Carbon  Dioxide  from  Coke. — Several  processes  have  been 
devised  for  preparing  carbon  dioxide  from  coke  or  charcoal, 
which  when  burned  yield  gases  containing  about  one-fifth  of 
their  volume  of  carbon  dioxide. 

Most  of  these  are  based  upon  the  well-known  property  of 
solutions  of  potassium  carbonate  to  combine  with  more  carbon 
dioxide  and  form  potassium  bicarbonate,  which  readily  parts 
with  the  gas  again  on  heating. 

In  Stead's  patent  process  the  furnace  gases  produced  in  the 
combustion  are  cleansed,  cooled,  and  made  to  circulate  through 
a  solution  of  potassium  carbonate.  This  absorbs  the  gas 
with  the  formation  of  potassium  bicarbonate,  and  on  now 
boiling  the  liquid  the  carbon  dioxide  is  expelled  again,  leaving  a 
solution  of  the  original  carbonate  ready  for  a  further  absorption. 

The  processes  of  "  bicarbonating  "  and  "decarbonating" 
are  carried  out  in  a  cycle  in  different  parts  of  the  apparatus. 

The  furnace  gases  are  first  forced  under  pressure  through  the 
"  bicarbonators,"  and  leave  behind  practically  the  whole  of 
their  carbon  dioxide,  while  the  other  gases  and  steam  escape 
from  a  suitable  outlet. 


CARBON   DIOXIDE  49 

The  bicarbonated  lye  is  then  boiled  by  means  of  steam-heat 
or  otherwise,  and  the  carbon  dioxide  expelled  in  the  process 
is  conducted  through  a  cooling  apparatus  into  a  gas-holder, 
whence  it  can  be  drawn  off  for  direct  use  in  aeration  or  for 
compression  into  liquid  carbon  dioxide. 

The  two  operations  involved  are  thus  independent,  and  are 
controlled  by  valves  which  are  worked  by  means  of  a  hand 
wheel. 

The  quality  of  the  gas  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired,  and  in 
the  writer's  experience  is  superior  to  that  produced  from 
whiting,  and  fully  equal  to  that  obtained  from  bicarbonate. 

The  apparatus  is  made  in  various  sizes,  intended  to  produce 
from  1  cwt.  to  5  tons  of  carbon  dioxide  per  day,  and  is  claimed 
to  effect  a  net  saving  of  £5  to  £8  per  ton  of  gas  over  that 
produced  in  the  old  way  from  acid  and  whiting. 

A  further  advantage  of  the  process  is  that  it  obviates  the 
necessity  of  pumping  the  alkaline  lye  from  one  vessel  into 
another. 

In  Candia  and  Merlini's  French  patent  (No.  387,874  of  1908), 
the  furnace  gases  ate  washed  with  water,  then  cleaned  in 
scrubbers  containing  coke  and  chalk,  where  they  encounter  a 
current  of  cold  water.  They  are  next  cooled  and  passed 
through  a  vessel  containing  a  sodium  hydroxide  or  potassium 
carbonate  solution.  In  the  first  case  solid  sodium  bicarbonate 
is  formed,  and  the  absorbed  carbon  dioxide  may  be  expelled 
by  calcining  the  salt,  while  in  the  second  case  the  solution  of 
potassium  bicarbonate  is  transferred  to  another  vessel,  and 
heated  to  expel  the  absorbed  carbon  dioxide. 

Liquid  Carbon  Dioxide. — The  gas  was  first  obtained  in  a 
liquid  form  by  Faraday,  who  used  for  the  purpose  a  strong 
glass  tube,  about  8  inches  in  length  and  J  inch  in  diameter, 
which  was  bent  at  an  obtuse  angle  a  short  distance  from  one 
end.  This  was  fused,  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  was  introduced 
by  means  of  a  long  funnel,  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  come  in 
contact  with  other  parts  of  the  tube,  after  which  fragments  of 
ammonium  carbonate  were  placed  in  the  longer  limb,  and  that 
too  was  hermetically  sealed.  When  the  tube  was  turned 

M.W,  E 


50  M1NEKAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

so  that  the  acid  ran  down  on  to  the  salt,  carbon  dioxide  was 
produced,  and  being  confined  within  the  closed  tube  became 
liquefied  by  its  own  pressure  and  formed  a  colourless  liquid 
at  the  other  end. 

Properties  of  Liquid  Carbon  Dioxide. — In  its  liquid  form 
carbon  dioxide  is  a  transparent,  very  mobile  fluid,  which  boils 
at  79°  C.  Its  vapour  pressure  at  0°  C.  is  equivalent  to  35 
atmospheres,  increasing  to  58  atmospheres  at  20°  C.,  and  falling 
to  14  atmospheres  at  14°  C.  It  dissolves  readily  in  alcohol 
and  ether,  but  does  not  mix  with  water. 

When  liquid  carbon  dioxide  is  allowed  to  escape  through  a 
small  aperture  into  a  canvas  bag,  part  of  the  fluid  becomes 
solidified  through  loss  of  heat  absorbed  in  the  spontaneous 
evaporation  of  the  remainder. 


FIG.  7. — Faraday's  Tube  for  Liquefying  Carbon  Dioxide. 

The  solid  product  is  a  snow-white  deposit  with  a  specific 
gravity  of  1-5,  and  under  the  ordinary  atmospheric  pressure 
vapourises  without  having  previously  melted. 

When  mixed  with  ether  or  alcohol,  solid  carbon  dioxide  is 
used  as  the  starting-point  for  obtaining  the  low  temperatures 
required  for  the  liquefaction  of  other  gases  that  do  not  so 
readily  assume  the  fluid  condition.  By  means  of  this  mixture 
an  initial  temperature  of  about  80°  C.  is  produced.  Solid 
carbon  dioxide  is  now  obtainable  as  a  commercial  article  at  a 
moderate  price. 

Liquid  carbon  dioxide  is  now  largely  employed  in  the 
mineral  water  industry,  in  which  to  a  great  extent  it  has  dis- 
placed the  production  of  the  gas  from  carbonates  and  mineral 
acid. 


CAEBON   DIOXIDK  51 

The  gas  is  obtained,  either  from  the  combustion  of  coke  or 
from  the  gaseous  products  of  fermentation,  by  means  of 
processes  described  in  outline  below,  and  is  forced  by  pressure 
pumps  into  steel  tubes,  which  have  been  tested  to  withstand 
pressures  far  in  excess  of  that  exerted  by  the  liquefied  carbon 
dioxide. 

The  risk  of  explosion  is  still  further  reduced  by  leaving  a 
small  amount  of  gas  in  the  cylinder,  and  elaborate  tables  have 
been  drawn  up.  showing  the  amount  of  liquid  which  may 
safely  be  put  into  the  tube.1  The  effect  of  leaving  1  per  cent, 
of  air  in  a  cylinder  is  to  increase  the  pressure  inside  by  about 
4  per  cent. 

The  general  adoption  of  gas  purchased  in  tubes,  in  place  of 
preparing  it  from  acid  and  whiting,  has  been  the  chief  develop- 
ment in  the  manufacture  of  mineral  waters  during  the  last  ten 
years. 

This  substitution  has  many  advantages  to  recommend  it, 
both  from  the  points  of  view  of  convenience  and  of  economy. 
Thus  it  has  eliminated  the  use  of  sulphuric  acid  from  the  factory, 
the  handling  of  which  was  always  attended  with  some  degree 
of  danger,  and  owing  to  the  greater  simplicity  of  working  with 
the  tubes,  has  reduced  the  labour  bill  to  a  considerable 
extent. 

It  has  also  effected  a  great  saving  in  the  cost  of  materials. 
Thus,  if  we  take  the  cost  of  a  ton  of  carbon  dioxide  produced 
from  acid  and  whiting  at  about  £13  10s.  Od.,  and  that  of  the 
gas  as  purchased  ready-made  in  tubes  at  about  £12  per  ton, 
there  will  be  a  saving  of  £1  10s.  0'7.  in  this  direction  alone. 

In  addition  to  this  there  is  the  further  advantage  of  obtaining 
a  purer  gas,  for  the  oil  of  vitriol  used  in  the  generator  frequently 
contained  arsenic,  and  there  was  some  risk  of  this  impurity 
being  introduced  into  the  mineral  waters. 

In  the  earlier  types  of  apparatus  for  preparing  liquid  carbon 
dioxide  upon  a  large  scale,  the  gas  was  generated  by  the  action 
of  an  acid  upon  a  carbonate  in  a  generator,  whence  it  was 
forced  over  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas  into  the  receiver. 

1  Stewart :   Tram,  Amer,  8oc.  Mech.  Engineers,  1909,  XXX.,  p.  1,111. 

E2 


52 


MINERAL    AND   AERATED   WATERS 


The  first  successful  apparatus  appears  to  have  been  that  of 
Thilorier,  which  is  represented  in  diagrammatic  form  in 
Fig.  8. 

This  consisted  of  a  cylindrical  leaden  chamber,  A,  enclosed  in 
copper,  and  strengthened  with  rings  of  wrought  iron,  and  of 
a  second  chamber,  B,  of  similar  construction. 

The  generator,  A,  which  was  about  2  feet  long  by  about 
4  inches  internal  diameter,  was  charged  with  6J  Ibs.  of  tepid 
water,  2f  Ibs.  of  powdered  sodium  bicarbonate,  and  1-47  Ibs. 
of  strong  commercial  sulphuric  acid,  these  proportions  being 
chosen  so  as  to  leave  an  excess  of  alkali  salt.  It  was  then 
turned  several  times  upon  its  axis,  pp,  after  which  it  was 


FIG.  8. — Thilorier's  Apparatus  for  Liquefying  Carbon  Dioxide. 

allowed  to  stand  vertically,  with  its  screw-plug,  s,  closed. 
The  liquefied  carbon  dioxide  rose  to  the  surface,  and  when 
the  generator  was  connected  with  the  receiver  by  means 
of  the  copper  tube,  x,  t,  x,  and  the  valves  were  opened, 
the  liquid  was  forced  over  into  the  other  vessel,  which  was 
meanwhile  chilled  in  ice  water.  By  opening  the  stopcock,  c, 
in  the  receiver,  the  liquid  could  escape  through  the  tube,  a, 
a  portion  of  it  being  immediately  solidified. 


CARBON   DIOXIDE  53 

Natural  Gas  Sources.-  In  Germany  liquid  carbon  dioxide 
is  prepared  from  the  natural  gas  as  it  issues  from  fissures  in 
the  earth.  This  gas  is  first  purified  by  washing  and  treatment 
with  suitable  solutions  to  remove  other  gases,  and  is  then  dried, 
and  liquefied  in  cylinders  by  means  of  powerful  pumps. 

Marble. — Another  source  whence  a  pure  liquefied  gas  is 
obtained  upon  an  industrial  scale  is  broken  marble,  which,  when 
strongly  heated  in  a  kiln  of  special  construction,  is  decomposed, 
with  the  liberation  of  carbon  dioxide.  The  gas  is  conducted 
through  cooling  apparatus,  and  condensed  to  the  liquid  form, 
while  the  residue  of  lime  left  in  the  kiln  is  used  for  mortar  in 
building. 

Carbon  dioxide  derived  from  white  marble  by  this  process 
is  particularly  pure,  for  the  small  quantities  of  impurities  which 
it  may  contain  are  not  removed  by  the  kilning,  as  they  may  be 
when  the  marble  is  decomposed  with  a  mineral  acid. 

Carbon  Dioxide  from  Breweries.  —The  vicinity  of  a  large 
brewery  first  suggested  to  Priestley  in  1772  the  possibility  of 
utilising  the  carbon  dioxide  liberated  in  the  process  of 
fermentation. 

In  a  postscript  to  his  pamphlet1  he  writes: — "In  large 
vessels  containing  liquors  in  a  state  of  fermentation,  as  at 
a  public  brewery  or  distillery,  fixed  air  may  be  found 
in  great  plenty  ready  made  ;  and  if  water  be  poured  from  one 
vessel  into  another  held  as  near  as  possible  to  the  surface  of 
the  fermenting  liquor  (by  means  of  long  handles)  for  about 
four  or  five  minutes,  it  will  acquire  the  acidulous  taste  of 
Pyrmont  water." 

Cylinders  of  liquid  carbon  dioxide  obtained,  in  the  first 
instance,  from  the  brewers'  fermenting  tuns,  have  now  been  for 
some  years  upon  the  market,  and  are  sold  to  the  mineral  water 
manufacturers  to  be  used  as  the  source  of  gas  for  the  aeration 
of  their  products. 

The  mode  of  collecting  it  is  shown  in  Fig.  9,  which  represents 

1  Priestley :  Directions  for  Impregnating  Water  with  Fixed  Air,  London,  1772, 
p.  21. 


54 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


a  vertical  section  of  a  modern  brewery.     The  fermenting  tuns 
upon  the  first  floor  are  closed  in  at  the  top,  and  the  carbon 


FIG.  9. — Eraser's  Apparatus  for  Collecting,  Compressing,  and  Deodorising 
Carbonic  Acid  Gas  from  Brewers'  Fermenting  Vessels. 

dioxide  is  drawn  off  from  above  the  yeast  and  passes  through 
a  main,  which  conducts  it  to  the  purifying  and  liquefying 
plant  upon  the  ground  floor. 


CARBON    DIOXIDE 


55 


In  this  case  the  carbon  dioxide  is  utilised  in  a  refrigerating 
machine,  which  keeps  the  storage  cellars  at  a  constant  low 
temperature. 

If  the  carbon  dioxide  is 
only  to  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose and  for  carbonating  the 
beer  in  the  brewery  itself,  no 
special  purification 
is  necessary,  since 
the  other  volatile 
products  of  fer- 
mentation  will 
already  be  present 
in  the  beer.  In 
such  cases,  too,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  liquefy  the  gas, 
but  it  is  sufficient  to  store  it 
in  suitable  receivers  at  a 
pressure  of  about  200  Ibs.  to 
the  square  inch. 

If,  however,  the  gas  is  to 
be  sold  for  aerating  mineral 
waters  it  must  be  washed, 
purified,  and  condensed  to  a 
liquid  in  strong  steel  cylinders. 
Sufficient  attention  is  not 
always  paid  to  this  question 
of  purification  before  liquefy- 
ing the  gas,  and  it  is  within 
the  present  writer's  experi- 
ence that  some  of  the  carbon 
dioxide  thus  derived  from 
breweries  will  impart  a  slight 
but  distinct  and  unpleasant 
odour  and  flavour  to  the 
mineral  water. 

Passing  the  gas  through  a 
solution  of  potassium  perman- 


l 


H 

o 
o 

£ 


56 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


ganate  on  its  way  to  the  bottling  machine  will  eliminate  more 
or  less  completely  the  volatile  substances. 

A  type  of  apparatus,  made  by  Messrs.  Eraser  &  Co.,  suit- 
able for  the  collection,  purification,  and  bottling  of  the  gas 
derived  from  fermenting  liquors  in  a  closed  vessel  of  enamelled 
steel  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  The  gas  governor  is  designed  to 
prevent  air  being  drawn  over  into  the  compressor. 


FIG.  11. — Hall's  Plant  for  Collecting  Carbon  Dioxide  from  Fermentations. 
The  Three -Stage  Compressor. 

The  external  appearance  of  other  machinery  used  for  this 
purpose  is  shown  in  Figs.  11  and  12,  which  represent  the  collect- 
ing apparatus  of  Messrs.  Hall  &  Co. 

Fig.  1 1  represents  the  three-stage  compressing  pump,  which 
is  driven  by  a  belt  passing  over  the  large  wheel,  and  connected 
with  a  steam  engine  or  electric  motor. 


CARBON   DIOXIDE 


57 


The  gas  entering  this  pump  is  forced  through  a  connecting 
pipe  (not  shown)  into  the  cylinders  of  the  condenser  (Fig.  12). 

Carbon  Dioxide  Refrigerating  Machinery .—  The  use  of  liquid 
carbon  dioxide  for  refrigerat- 
ing purposes  is  being  increas- 
ingly extended  in  mineral 
water  factories  where  a  supply 
of  cold  water  from  an  artesian 
well  is  not  obtainable. 

In  order  to  obtain  proper 
saturation  of  the  liquids  with 
the  gas  in  the  bottling  process 
it  is  essential  that  the  tem- 
perature should  not  be  too 
high,  the  reason  for  which 
will  be  seen  by  a  reference  to 
the  table  on  p.  46,  which 
shows  the  solubility  of  carbon 
dioxide  at  various  tempera- 
tures. 

Sufficient  cooling  of  ginger 
beer  is  also  essential  to  the 
production  of  a  good -keeping 
product,  in  order  to  lessen 
the  time  of  cooling,  and 
reduce  the  risk  of  infection 
with  foreign  micro-organisms 
prior  to  the  introduction  of 
the  chosen  yeast. 

This  is  especially  necessary 
in  hot  climates,  where  the 
water  available  for  cooling 
purposes  may  often  be  as  high  as  90°  F.,  so  that  without  the 
use  of  a  suitable  refrigerating  machine  it  would  be  only  by 
good  luck  that  a  well-aerated  mineral  water  or  stable  ginger 
beer  could  be  manufactured. 

Carbon  dioxide  refrigerating  machinery  is  rapidly  displacing 


FIG.  12,— The  Condenser  Purifier  and 
Bottling  Machine. 


58 


MINERAL   AND    AERATED   WATERS 


the  more  costly  ammonia  and  sulphur  dioxide  plants,  over 
which  it  has  also  many  advantages  in  addition  to  economy  in 
working. 

Thus  the  gas  may  be  blown  off  through  the  safety-valve 
without  risk  of  injury  to  persons  in  the  room,  which  is  not 
the  case  with  ammonia  ;  and,  unlike  the  latter,  it  does  not  attack 
copper  or  its  alloys. 

There  is  also  the  great  advantage  that,  being  the  gas  subse- 
quently used  in  carbonating  mineral  waters,  it  cannot,  when 


Intel 


Outlet 

316  2  A 


FIG.  13. — Diagrammatic  Section  of  Hall's  Refrigerating  Machine. 


pure,  impart  any  flavour  to  liquids  with  which  it  comes  into 
contact. 

Assuming  the  price  of  the  carbon  dioxide  to  be  about  l^d. 
per  lb.,  the  price  of  the  material  required  for  working  a  carbon 
dioxide  plant  would  only  be  about  one-twentieth  of  that  needed 
for  an  ammonia  plant. 

The  principles  upon  which  the  refrigerating  plant  of  Messrs. 
J.  &  E.  Hall  (the  originators  of  the  system  in  this  country) 
depend  may  be  gathered  from  the  diagrammatic  section  of 
one  of  their  machines  shown  in  Fig.  13. 

It  consists  of  four  main  parts — viz.,  (1)  The  Compressor, 
in  which  the  gas  drawn  from  the  evaporator  is  subjected  to 


CARBON   DIOXIDE  59 

sufficient  pressure  to  liquefy  it  ;'  (2)  The  Condenser,  composed 
of  coils  of  pipes  in  which  (he  gas  is  cooled  by  means  of  water, 
and  thus  becomes  liquefied  ;  (3)  The  Evaporator,  in  the  coils 
of  which  the  liquid  carbon  dioxide  evaporates,  and  in  so  doing 
abstracts  heat  from  the  surrounding  liquid ;  and  (4)  The 
Regulating  Valve,  by  means  of  which  the  degree  of  compression 


FJG.  H.—Hall's  Vertical  Combined  Land  Type  C02  Refrigerating  Machine 

and  evaporation  is  controlled  in  accordance  with  the  readings 
of  the  two  pressure  gauges. 

The  external  appearance  of  one  of  these  machines  is  shown 
in  Fig.  14,  while  its  internal  construction  may  be  seen  from 
the  vertical  section  shown  in  Fig.  15. 


60 


MINEEAL   AND   AEBATED   WATERS 


These  machines  are  made  of  iron,  steel,  bronze  or  copper, 
according  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  required,  and  are 
tested  to  a  pressure  three  times  as  great  as  that  to  which  they 
will  be  exposed  under  working  conditions  (often  about  950  Ibs. 
per  square  inch). 

Evaporator    Guage 
Condenser  Gua*ge 


Evaporator 

coil 


Condenser 
coil 


Condenser 
casing 

Insulated  division 
berween  Condenser 
&  Evaporator 


Driving 
pulley 

—  __  Crank 
Shaft 


Brine  circulating 
pump 

FIG.    15. — Diagram  illustrating  construction  of  Hall's  Land  Type  Machine. 

In  another  modification  of  the  apparatus,  the  coils  of  the 
condenser,  which  are  constructed  of  wrought-iron  pipes,  are 
arranged  so  that  water  trickles  over  them,  instead  of  being 
immersed  in  a  tank  of  water.  The  machines  are  also  adapted 
for  cooling  the  air  of  a  room,  but  except  in  tropical  climates, 
this  is  hardly  necessary  in  mineral  water  factories,  though  there 
would  be  some  advantage  in  doing  this  in  the  brewing  of  ginger 
beer,  so  as  to  obviate  the  risk  of  infection  of  the  yeast. 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


Where  it  is  desired  to  cool  a  room  in  this  way  the  air 
may  be  made  to  pass  across  a  system  of  chilled  brine 
pipes,  or  the  chilled  brine  may  be  made  to  circulate  through 
pipes  arranged  round  the  chamber,  special  precautions  being 
taken  to  prevent  heat  entering  the  room  by  way  of  the 
walls. 

A  refrigerating  machine  installed  in  a  large  mineral  water 
factory  is  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  16). 

Pressure  Gauges. — The  pressure  at  which  the  carbon  dioxide 
is  forced  into  the  saturating  vessel,  and  consequently  the 

pressure  it  will  exert  within  the 
bottle,  is  indicated  upon  a 
gauge. 

This  contains  a  spring,  which, 
when  acted  upon  by  the  gas,  sets  in 
motion  a  lever  which  controls  an 
indicator  upon  the  face  of  the 
dial. 

Thus  in  a  common  type  of 
pressure  gauge,  the  carbon  dioxide 
enters  the  space,  B,  which  has  a 
closely  fitting  spring  cover,  C.  The 
pressure  the  gas  exerts  upon  this 
spring  lifts  the  steel  rod,  E,  and 
this  in  turn  raises  the  triangle,  F. 
The  indented  edge  of  this  fits  into 

a  cog-wheel,  which  moves  a  second 
FIG  17.-Diagram  illustrating  the  whee]  connected  with  the  indica. 
construction  01  a  .Pressure  brauge. 

tor,  GG,  while  a  spiral  spring,  H, 

prevents  a  too-rapid  motion  of  the  indicator  (Fig.  17). 

The  values  recorded  upon  the  dial  vary  in  different  countries. 
In  England  and  the  United  States  the  ordinary  atmospheric 
pressure  (14-7  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch)  is  represented  by  zero, 
while  the  higher  readings  are  given  in  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch. 
In  Germany  zero  also  represents  the  normal  pressure,  but 
the  pressures  in  excess  thereof  are  represented  as  so  many 
atmospheres,  and  are  not  expressed  in  Ibs.  or  their  metric 


CARBON   DIOXIDE  63 

equivalent  :  while  in  France  the  figure  1  represents  the 
normal  pressure,  and  the  figures  2  and  so  on  the  super 
pressures. 

Thus,  for  example,  a  pressure  of  three  atmospheres  would  be 
represented  by  the  figure  2  on  the  German  scale,  3  on  the 
French  scale,  and  by  29  Ibs.  on  the  British  and  American 
scales. 


CHAPTER    VI 
ARTIFICIAL  MINERAL  WATERS 

THE  miraculous  cures  which  were  directly  attributed  to  the 
waters  of  some  of  the  mediseval  springs  could  not  fail  to  give 
birth  to  the  speculations  of  the  natural  philosopher  as  to  their 
cause. 

In  the  doctrines  of  alchemy,  which  .gradually  developed  into 
the  science  of  chemistry,  water  was  termed  the  phlegm,  and  was 
a  passive  principle  like  earth.  There  were  also  three  active 
principles — viz.,  (1)  the  Spirit  (or  mercury),  a  subtile,  piercing 
light  substance  "  causing  all  Bodies  to  grow  in  more  or  less  time, 
according  as  it  abounds  in  them  more  or  less  "  ;  (2)  the  Oil. 
"  a  subtile  unctuous  substance  that  rises  after  the  Spirit,  and 
causes  the  Diversity  of  Colours  and  Smells  "  ;  and  (3)  Salt, 
"  which  remains  disguised  in  the  Earth  after  the  other  principles 
are  extracted.  It  preserves  bodies  from  Corruption  and  causes 
the  Diversity  of  Tastes,  according  as  it  is  diversely  mixed." 
Salts  again  were  further  divided  into  three  different  groups, 
known  as  Firt,  Volatile  and  Essential. 

It  is  not  surprising  that  the  sparkling  character  of  many 
natural  spring  waters,  due  to  the  escape  of  dissolved  carbon 
dioxide,  should  have  lent  support  to  the  commonly  accepted 
belief  that  there  was  present  in  such  mineral  waters  some 
volatile  vital  essence,  or  Spiritus  sylveslris,  to  which  they  owed 
their  beneficial  effects.  This  idea  received  confirmation  from 
what  were  believed  to  be  the  facts  that  the  waters  of  certain 
wells  did  not  produce  the  same  results  when  bottled  and  sent 
away  as  when  they  were  used  upon  the  spot,  the  cause  of  this 
being  due,  so  it  was  alleged,  to  the  loss  of  some  of  this  volatile 
first  principle,  the  "  Soul  of  the  Waters." 

"  This  noble  Spirit  it  is,"  wrote  Hoffmann  in  173 1,1  "  which 
by  its  penetrating  Nature  and  admirable  Faculty  renders  itself 

1  "  Experiments  on  Mineral  Waters,"  English  trans.,  1731. 


ARTIFICIAL   MINERAL   WATERS  65 

perceptible  to  the  Smell  and  Sense,  not  only  affording  a  grateful 
Odour  by  its  Exhalation,  but  also  filling  the  whole  Head 
therewith." 

Further,  he  remarks  that  this  principle  is  the  "  most  curious 
and  effectual  part  "  of  mineral  waters,  and  concludes  that  "  the 
delicate  Nature  of  this  Spirit  is  the  true  and  principle  Cause  of 
the  great  Difficulty,  even  by  the  utmost  Address  of  Art,  of  pre- 
paring Waters  that  shall  perfectly  resemble  and  have  the  noble 
Virtues  of  the  natural  hot  or  cold  medicinal  Springs." 

Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  Van  Helmont  (1577 — 1644) 
discovered  carbon  dioxide,  and  showed  that  it  was  distinct 
from  ordinary  air,  for  prior  to  his  discovery,  all  known  gases 
had  been  regarded  as  merely  so  many  different  varieties  of  air. 

He  invented  the  name  "  gas,"  and  described  his  newly- 
found  substance  as  the  gas  sylvestre,  probably  from  the  fact 
that  he  first  prepared  it  by  burning  wood.  The  later  name  of 
"  fixed  air  "  was  given  to  carbon  dioxide  in  1757  by  Black, 
from  the  fact  that  it  was  absorbed  by  caustic  alkalies. 

This  gas  sylvestre  gradually  came  to  be  regarded  as  the 
chief  active  first  principle  or  spirit  in  all  mineral  waters. 

In  1712  J.  Seip  published  an  account  of  the  water  of  the 
Pyrmont  Spring,1  and  his  investigations  were  continued  by  his 
son,  F.  G.  P.  Seip,  who,  in  1750,  described  the  results  of  his 
observations  on  the  "  Spirit  "  and  salt  of  these  mineral  waters,2 
in  which  he  quotes  from  an  English  work  by  Dr.  Turner  upon 
the  same  subject. 

In  Seip's  opinion  this  spirit  of  the  waters  was  identical,  or 
had  much  in  common  with  the  gas  that  was  emitted  from 
fissures  in  the  floors  of  caves,  such  as  the  Grotto  del  Cane,  and 
with  the  gas  that  was  set  free  in  the  process  of  fermentation. 

He  considered  this  "  genuine  mineral  spirit  "  to  be  a  volatile 
vitriolic  acid. 

In  the  year  1741  William  Brownrigg  read  a  paper  before  the 
Royal  Society  on  "  The  Use  of  a  Knowledge  of  Mineral 
Exhalations  when  Applied  to  Discovering  the  Principle  and 
Properties  of  Mineral  Waters." 

1  "  Beschreibung  der  Pyrmontischen  Gesund  Brunen,"  1712. 
"  Beschreibung  der  Pyrmontischen  Mineral  Wasser  und  Stahlbrunncn,"  1750, 

M.W,  F 


66  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

In  this  paper,  which  was  not  published  until  1765,  he  gave 
reasons  for  his  conclusion  that  the  "  subtile  and  fugitive 
principle,  the  spirit  of  mineral  fountains,"  was  closely  related 
to  the  choke  damp  found  in  coal  mines  and  in  various  other 
parts  of  the  earth. 

He  also  described  experiments  which  indicated  that  the  class 
of  waters  known  as  acidulce  were  really  impregnated  "  with  a 
mephitic  exhalation  resembling  the  choak  damp,"  as  was  also 
made  manifest  by  the  effects  produced  upon  ducks  swimming 
upon  the  surface  of  certain  springs,  such  as  those  of  Pyrmont. 

And  with  regard  to  the  therapeutic  action  of  these  waters, 
he  remarked  that  "  the  elastic  spirit  of  the  acidulae  seems 
to  have  a  great  share  in  the  admirable  effects  which  those  waters 
exert  upon  the  body." 

His  later  paper  was  published  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Royal  Society,1  under  the  title  of  "  An  Experimental  Enquiry 
into  the  Mineral  Elastic  Spirit  or  Air  contained  in  Spa  Water 
as  well  as  into  the  Mephitic  Qualities  of  this  Spirit,"  and  his 
former  communication  was  given  as  an  appendix. 

Here  he  elaborated  his  experiments  and  the  deductions 
drawn  from  them,  and  still  laid  stress  upon  the  point  that  this 
mephitic  air  entered  into  the  composition  of  all  sharp  and 
pungent  waters  like  those  of  Pyrmont  and  Spa,  and  that  it  was 
the  volatile  spirit  upon  which  their  prime  virtues  depended. 

In  the  interval  between  the  two  papers  of  Brownrigg,  Dr. 
Springfield  wrote,  in  the  year  1748,  a  treatise  in  Latin  on  the 
waters  of  Spa  ("  Iter  Medicum  ad  Aquas  Spadanas  "),  in  which 
he  expressed  the  opinion  that  ordinary  air  was  the  cause  of  the 
clear  solution  of  the  contents  of  "  subtile  mineral  waters." 
And  this  view  was  supported  by  Venel  in  his  memoir  upon 
Seltzer  water  (1755),  in  which  he  gave  reasons  for  his  belief  that 
the  "  mineral  spirit  "  was  air  itself. 

He  also  attempted  to  prepare  Seltzer  water  artificially,  by 
adding  sodium  carbonate  and  hydrochloric  acid  to  ordinary 
water,  so  that  the  gas  produced  saturated  the  liquid. 

Although  Venel  was  mistaken  as  to  the  nature  of  the  "  air  " 
that  he  produced,  his  method  of  impregnation  marks  a  great 

1  Phil  Trans.,  1765,  LV.,  p.  218. 


ARTIFICIAL   MINERAL   WATERS  67 

advance  in  the  direction  of  the  successful  imitation  of  naturally 
carbonated  mineral  waters,  since  the  proportions  of  acid  and 
sodium  carbonate  were  chosen  so  as  to  yield  approximately 
the  right  amount  of  sodium  chloride  in  the  finished  water. 

Both  Springfield  and  Venel  were  evidently  unacquainted 
with  the  results  of  the  experiments  of  Brownrigg  and  others 
upon  the  nature  of  the  "  air  "  in  this  type  of  mineral  waters, 
and  their  conclusions  were  once  more  shown  to  be  erroneous 
by  Bergmann  and  subsequently  by  Priestley. 

Bergmann  (1735 — 1784),  who  was  Professor  of  Chemistry 
at  Upsala,  in  Sweden,  proved  that  the  principle  of  the  "  fluid 
called  fixed  air  "  was  common  to  the  Seltzer,  Spa,  and  Pyrmont 
waters,  and  he  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  attempt  an 
artificial  imitation  of  these  waters,  so  as  to  include  both  the 
volatile  "  fixed  air "  and  the  dissolved  saline  constituents 
(see  p.  74). 

He  also  showed  that  solutions  of  carbon  dioxide  had  an  acid 
reaction,  and  for  this  reason  described  the  gas  as  the  "  aerial 
acid,"  which  could  be  expelled  with  effervescence  from  sub- 
stances with  which  it  was  united,  by  means  of  a  stronger 
acid. 

The  essays  of  Macbride.1  which  were  published  in  1767, 
contained  many  ingenious  speculations  upon  the  physiological 
properties  of  fixed  air.  From  the  facts  that  more  of  that  gas 
was  liberated  in  the  putrefaction  of  vegetable  than  of  animal 
matter,  and  that  the  use  of  vegetable  food  was  admitted  to 
be  a  remedy  against  sea-scurvy  and  other  "  putrid  diseases," 
he  drew  the  inference  that  these  good  effects  of  a  vegetable 
diet  were  due  to  the  greater  proportion  of  fixed  air  set  free  in 
the  decomposition  of  the  food  by  the  digestive  organs. 

This  gas,  he  argued,  would  then  be  absorbed  into  the  system, 
and  would  tend  to  check  any  putrefactive  changes  that  had 
set  in.  Thus  on  p.  87  he  remarks  : — "  Seeing  then  that  dead 
bodies  become  putrid  from  the  loss  of  their  fixed  air,  may  not 
the  immediate  cause  of  putrefaction  in  living  bodies  be  the 
detachment  of  too  large  a  proportion  of  their  fixed  air  ?  " 

1  "  Experimental  Essays  on  Medical  and  Philosophical  Subjects,"  by  D.  Mac- 
bride,  M.D.,  London.  1767.  Second  edition. 

F2 


68  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

And  so  by  replacing  this  loss  the  course  of  the  disease  would 
be  arrested. 

To  give  practical  effect  to  his  theory  he  suggested  the 
employment  of  a  mixture  of  fresh  lime-juice  with  a  carbonate 
as  a  remedy  against  sea-scurvy  and  yellow  fever,  his  pre- 
scription being  "  to  give  the  patients  repeated  doses  of  alkaline 
salts  in  fresh  lime-juice  and  the  like,  and  let  it  always  be 
swallowed  during  the  effervescence." 

Priestley  adopted  the  view  of  the  carbon  dioxide  being  the 
principal  medicinal  constituent  of  naturally  carbonated  waters, 
and  in  his  pamphlet  on  "  Directions  for  Impregnating  Water 
with  Fixed  Air  in  order  to  Communicate  to  it  the  peculiar 
Spirit  and  Virtues  of  Pyrmont  Water,"  he  remarks  : — "  If 
any  person  chuse  to  make  this  medicated  water  more  closely 
resemble  genuine  Pyrmont  water,  Sir  John  Pringle  informs 
me  that  from  8  to  10  drops  of  Tinctura  Martis  cum  Spiritu 
Salis  must  be  mixed  with  every  pint  of  it.  It  is  agreed,  however, 
on  all  hands  that  the  peculiar  virtues  of  Pyrmont  water  or  any 
other  mineral  water  which  has  the  same  brisk  or  acidulous 
taste  depend  not  upon  its  being  a  chalybeate,  but  upon  the 
fixed  air  which  it  contains." 

And  later,  he  emphasises  the  point  that  ordinary  water 
saturated  with  carbon  dioxide  will  be  of  most  service  in 
"  diseases  of  a  putrid  nature,  of  which  kind  is  sea-scurvy." 
"  It  can  hardly  be  doubted,"  he  continues,  "  that  this  water 
must  have  all  the  medicinal  virtues  of  Pyrmont  water  and  some 
other  medicinal  waters  similar  to  it,  whatever  they  be  ; 
especially  if  a  few  iron  filings  be  put  into  it  to  render  it 
chalybeate  like  genuine  Pyrmont  water." 

Priestley's  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  carbon  dioxide  as  a 
therapeutic  agent  was  based  upon  the  then  widely  accepted 
view  that  carbon  dioxide,  or  fixed  air,  acted  as  an  antiseptic 
agent  when  introduced  in  a  free  state  into  the  circulatory  system 
—the  theory  that  had  been  put  forward  so  plausibly  by 
Macbride  (see  p.  67). 

His  pamphlet  was  published  in  1772,  and  was  dedicated 
to  the  Earl  of  Sandwich,  First  Lord  Commissioner  of  the 
Admiralty,  in  recognition  of  the  favourable  manner  in  which 


ARTIFICIAL   MINERAL   WATERS  69 

the  inventor's  proposal  for  improving  water  at  sea  had  been 
received. 

An  illustration  of  the  apparatus,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  earliest  predecessors  of  the  carbonating  machines 
of  to-day,  is  given  on  a  subsequent  page. 

Sulphurous  Waters. — With  the  general  advance  in  know- 
ledge of  the  carbonated  waters  the  sulphur-bearing  springs, 
of  which  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  then  the  most  celebrated,  were 
also  made  the  subject  of  investigation. 

The  existence  of  sulphur  in  such  waters  was  the  subject  of 
much  controversy,  and  its  presence  was  denied  by  various 
chemists,  including  Hoffmann  and  Lister,  who  asserted  that 
the  unpleasant  odour  was  due,  not  to  sulphur,  but  to  the 
effects  of  stagnation. 

In  1759,  however,  Dr.  John  Rutty  read  a  paper  before  the 
Royal  Society  upon  "  Thoughts  on  the  Different  Impregnations 
of  Mineral  Waters,"1  in  which  he  described  a  series  of  system- 
atic tests  applied  to  various  so-called  hepatic  waters,  and  showed 
that  the  reactions  were  caused  by  sulphur,  and  were  not  merely 
the  accompaniments  of  a  stagnant  water. 

He  summarised  his  conclusions  in  the  following  words  :— 
"  Thus  it  appears  that  sulphur  is  not  confined  to  the  hot  baths 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  a  few  more  abroad,  but  is  found  also 
in  the  cold  waters  of  both  England  and  Ireland." 

Priestley,  at  the  end  of  his  pamphlet  on  the  impregnation 
of  water  with  fixed  air,  also  described  the  manner  in  which  his 
apparatus  might  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  mineral  waters 
impregnated  with  sulphur  compounds.  Instead  of  limestone, 
chalk  or  marble,  he  charged  the  small  receptacle  with  liver  of 
sulphur,  which  he  then  decomposed  in  the  same  way  with 
dilute  sulphuric  acid. 

"  The  hepatic  air  will  arise,"  he  observes,  "  the  water  will 
be  impregnated,  will  smell  strongly  sulphurous,  and  will 
resemble  the  celebrated  waters  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  etc." 

Salts  in  Mineral  Waters.— But  as  it  was  not  only  in  the 
direction  of  the  search  for  the  "  soul  "  of  mineral  waters, 

1  Phil  Trans.,  1759,  LI.,  p.  275. 


70  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

which  culminated  in  artificial  carbonation  of  the  water,  that 
frequent  attempts  had  been  made  to  imitate  natural  mineral 
waters. 

The  concentration  of  sea  water  by  evaporation  to  obtain  the 
dissolved  salts  in  a  crystalline  form  obviously  suggested  a 
similar  process  for  the  separation  of  the  second  active  principle, 
the  salt,  from  mineral  waters. 

In  the  year  1697  a  "  Treatise  of  the  Nature  of  the  Waters  of 
Epsom  "  was  published  by  Dr.  Nehemiah  Grew,  in  which  the 
properties  of  the  water  are  described  and  directions  are  given 
for  preparing  the  active  salt  (magnesium  sulphate)  by 
evaporation  of  the  water  and  crystallisation  of  the  salt. 

In  the  patent  granted  to  him  in  the  following  year  (Eng. 
Pat.  No.  354  of  1698)  his  process  is  described  as  "  The  Way  of 
Making  the  Salt  of  the  Purgeing  Waters  perfectly  Fine  and  in 
Large  Quantities  very  Cheape,  so  as  to  be  comonly  Prescribed 
and  Taken  as  a  Generall  Medicine." 

Analogous  processes  were  introduced  about  the  same  time 
abroad,  for  we  find  in  Lemery's  "  Course  of  Chymistry  "J  that 
"  Many  acid  bituminous  Salts  which  are  drawn  by  the  Evapo- 
ration of  certain  Mineral  Waters,  such  as  those  of  Baler ac 
in  Languedoc,  and  Digne  in  Provence,  do  perform  the  same 
Effects  [as  sea  salt]  when  they  are  mixed  with  Oil  of  Tartar." 

Lemery  also  describes  a  method  of  preparing  a  medicinal 
salt  Sal  Polychrestum  (voXvxpris  "good  for  many  uses"), 
which  was  an  impure  potassium  sulphate,  obtained  by  heating 
nitre  and  sulphur  in  a  crucible. 

He  recognised  that  this  was  not  the  same  substance  as  the 
salt  made  and  sold  under  that  name  by  Seignette  of  Rochelle. 
"  Monsieur  Seignette,  an  Apothecary  of  Rochelle,"  he  remarks. 
"  hath  put  in  Use  a  certain  Sal  Polychrestum  ;  the  composition  is 
known  to  none  but  himself,  who  having  given  it  a  Reputation 
in  the  Chiefest  Towns  of  France  hath  left  some  Quantity  of  it 
with  me  to  distribute  and  make  Use  of  here  in  Paris." 

This  salt,  which  is  still  known  as  Rochelle  or  Seignette  salt,  was 
the  double  tartrate  of  potassium  and  sodium. 

Yet  another  passage  from  Lemery  deserves  quotation  as 

1  Translated  from  the  French.     Fourth  English  edition,  1720,  p.  254. 


ARTIFICIAL    MINERAL   WATERS  71 

foreshadowing  the  preparation  of  artificial  medicinal  mineral 
waters. ;  "  One  may  make  an  Aperitive  Mineral  Water,"  he 
writes,  "  by  dissolving  eight  or  nine  grains  of  Gilla  Vitrioli 
[zinc  sulphate]  in  two  pints  of  Common  Water." 

Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  discovered  by  F. 
Hoffmann1  that  the  purgative  character  of  the  water  of  the 
springs  at  Sedlitz,  in  Bohemia,  was  due  to  the  presence  of 
Epsom  salt  (magnesium  sulphate)  in  considerably  greater 
proportion  than  even  in  the  water  of  Epsom  itself.  He  showed 
that  the  salt  might  be  obtained  in  a  solid  form  by  evaporating 
and  crystallising  the  residue  as  in  the  case  of  Epsom  water, 
and  to  his  discoveries  the  town  of  Sedlitz  (or  Seidlitz)  owed  its 
fame. 

The  crystals  of  magnesium  sulphate  prepared  from  the 
water  were  put  upon  the  English  market  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  under  the  name  of  Seidlitz  salts. 

Hoffmann  also  published  a  treatise  upon  mineral  waters  in 
general,  in  which,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  he  found  the 
three  main  constituents  : — A  volatile  principle  ;  a  solid  salt 
or  earthy  substance  ;  and  "  moisture  "  or  "  elementary  water." 

This  book  was  translated  into  French,  and  an  English  edition 
was  published  in  the  year  1731. 

The  methods  of  analysis  then  used  in  the  examination  of 
mineral  waters  were  mainly  due  to  the  earlier  investigations  of 
Boyle  and  of  Du  Clos. 

In  the  year  1663  Robert  Boyle  made  use  of  several  substances 
to  precipitate  various  ingredients  in  water,  and  showed  that 
syrup  of  violets  was  reddened  by  acids,  that  water  tinged  with 
logwood  became  yellow  with  acids,  and  so  on.  Then,  in  1684, 
he  published  a  treatise  in  which  he  described  several  reagents 
for  examining  mineral  waters.2 

Thus  he  employed  an  infusion  of  galls,  oak  leaves  or  myro- 
balaus  for  the  detection  of  iron  in  water,  and  showed  how 
sulphurous  waters  might  be  recognised  by  the  changes  of 
colour  given  by  them  with  solutions  of  various  metals.  He 
also  described  tests  for  detecting  the  presence  of  arsenic  in 

1  "  Bericht  von  der  Wurckung  des  Brunnens  zu  Sedlitz,"  1725.  • 

2  "  Short  Memoirs  for  the  Natural  Experimental  History  of  Mineral  Waters." 
London,  1684. 


72  MINERAL   AND   AERATED  WATERS 

water,  and  dealt  in  some  detail  with  the  salts  contained  in 
English  mineral  waters. 

In  estimating  the  residue  left  on  evaporation  of  waters — 
the  caput  mortuum  as  he  termed  it,  Boyle  used  a  rough  balance 
with  which  to  weigh  the  residual  salts,  a/nd  gave  the  comparative 
results  obtained  with  different  mineral  waters  such  as  those 
of  "  Dulledge,"  Acton,  Epsom,  and  Islington  ("  From  the 
Musick  House  "). 

In  discussing  the  question  of  ferruginous  waters,  he  observed 
that  "  most  of  them,  even  such  as  will  bear  removing,  have 
something  of  Freshness  and  Quickness  at  the  Spring  head, 
perhaps  from  some  Spirituous  and  Fugitive  Exhalations  that 
there  arise  with  them,  but  presently  vanish,  that  they  have 
not  anywhere  else." 

"  And  if  it  be  with  some  such  Spirituous  and  Volatile 
Exhalations  that  a  Mineral  Water  as  that  of  Tunbridge  or  of 
Islington  is  impregnated,  'tis  not  hard  to  conceive  that  they  may 
easily  lose  their  chief  Vertue,  by  the  avolation  of  most  or  many 
of  their  fugitive  Parts,  upon  their  being  removed  to  a  distance 
from  the  Spring  head." 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  other  substances 
were  employed  in  testing  mineral  waters.  Thus  Du  Clos,  who 
began  a  systematic  examination  of  all  the  mineral  waters  of 
France,  which  he  continued  for  many  years,  made  use  of  many 
other  reagents,  including  juice  of  iris  flowers,  martial  vitriol 
(iron  sulphate),  and  turnesole  (turmeric). 

Hoffmann  was  the  first  to  detect  sodium  carbonate  (which 
he  termed  "  nitre  ")  in  several  mineral  springs,  while  Allen, 
in  17 II,1  discovered  a  salt  containing  vitriolic  acid  and  lime  " 
(calcium  sulphate),  which  he  termed  selenite,  in  certain  of 
these  waters. 

In  the  year  1755  Dr.  Peter  Shaw  published  his  ''  Chymical 
Lectures,"  in  which  there  is  a  section  dealing  with  "  The  More 
Commodious  Method  of  Examining  Mineral  Waters."  He 
describes  the  behaviour  of  Pyrmont  water  towards  several 
reagents,  and  classifies  mineral  waters  in  general  into  three 
classes — chalybeate,  purgative,  and  alterative. 

1  "  Natural  History  of  Mineral  Waters  of  Great  Britain,"  1711. 


ARTIFICIAL   MINERAL  WATERS  73 

He  then  proceeds  to  show  how  "the  mineral  waters  are 
imitable  by  Art,"  and  gives  the  following  prescription  for  the 
artificial  preparation  of  Pyrmont  water  :— 

"  We  took  a  quart  of  the  lightest  and  purest  Water  we  could 
procure,  and  added  to  it  about  thirty  drops  of  a  strong  Solution  of 
Iron,  made  with  Spirit  of  Salt,  a  dram  or  more  of  Oleum  Tartari  per 
deliquum,  and  twenty,  thirty,  or  forty  drops  of  Spirit  of  Vitriol, 
but  so  as  that  the  Alkali  of  the  Oil  of  Tartar  might  prevail.  We 
now  shook  all  briskly  together  and  poured  out  into  a  glass  for 
tasting  ;  upon  which  it  was  found  very  remarkably  to  resemble 
Pyrmont  Water." 

From  his  analyses,  Shaw  concluded  that  the  ingredients  of 
Pyrmont  water  were  "  a  subtile  aqueous  fluid,  a  volatile  iron, 
and  a  predominating  alkali,  all  joined  into  one  brisk,  pungent, 
spirituous  water." 

Referring  to  the  imitation  of  mineral  waters  in  general, 
Shaw  remarks  that  the  imitation  of  the  common  purgative 
mineral  waters,  such  as  those  of  Epsom,  is  "  facile,"  but  that 
the  imitation  of  the  "  alterative  waters  such  as  those  of  Bath, 
Buckston,  and  Holt  has  hitherto  scarce  been  attempted,  nor 
can  be  rationally  for  want  of  their  respective  just  analyses,  upon 
which  such  imitations  should  always  be  founded." 

The  exact  nature  of  the  substances  that  Peter  Shaw  dissolved 
in  water,  in  his  attempts  to  imitate  Pyrmont  water,  is  not  quite 
clear,  but  apparently  there  was  iron  sulphate,  hydrochloric 
acid,  and  a  solution  of  potassium  carbonate,  obtained  by 
igniting  cream  of  tartar,  and  extracting  the  mass  with  water. 
Carbon  dioxide  would  be  liberated  by  the  interaction  of  the 
carbonate  and  mineral  acid  and  would  impregnate  the  liquid. 

The  importance  attached  to  the  presence  of  "  fixed  air  " 
in  a  mineral  water  caused  less  attention  to  be  paid  to  the  saline 
constituents,  and  as  has  already  been  mentioned  (p.  68), 
ordinary  carbonated  water  came  to  be  regarded  as  possessing 
all  the  medicinal  virtues  of  the  effervescing  mineral  waters. 

Bergman,  however,  clearly  recognised  that  to  imitate  a 
natural  mineral  water  it  was  not  sufficient  merely  to  saturate 
ordinary  water  with  carbon  dioxide,  but  that  the  different 
character  of  these  waters  was  due  to  their  containing  different 


74  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

salts  in  different  proportions.  :'  Hence,"  he  remarks,1  "  water 
by  bare  impregnation  with  fixed  air  cannot  be  called  either 
Seltzer,  Spa  or  Pyrmont,  nor  can  he  be  said  to  understand  the 
artificial  preparation  of  these  waters  who  merely  knows .  the 
method  of  saturating  water  with  fixed  air." 

Bergman's  account  of .  how  he  came  to  prepare  artificial 
medicinal  waters  in  Sweden  is  sufficiently  interesting  to  deserve 
quotation  :— 

"  In  the  year  1770,"  he  writes,  "  being  attacked  by  a 
severe  colic,  I  was  obliged  to  take  above  eighty  bottles  of 
foreign  medicated  waters.  By  these  the  symptoms  were 
somewhat  mitigated  ;  in  the  meantime  I  examined  the 
nature  and  principles  of  these  waters  with  the  greatest 
attention,  as  I  most  earnestly  desired  to  imitate  them  ; 
for  besides  their  extreme  dearness  in  this  country  at  the 
beginning  of  the  spring,  when  not  only  diseases,  the 
foundations  of  which  have  been  laid  in  winter,  but  my 
complaints  are  also  particularly  troublesome,  these  waters 
cannot  be  had  fresh  and  good  at  any  price.  I  soon  reaped 
the  wished-for  fruit  of  my  labours,  for  the  year  following 
I  substituted  the  artificial  to  the  natural  waters,  and  not 
only  used  them  myself  but  gave  them  to  many  of  my 
friends  with  like  success." 

And  in  another  passage  Bergman  remarks  : — "  In  the  year 
1771,  at  Upsal,  several  persons  made  use  of  waters  artificially 
prepared,  which  exactly  resembled  the  natural  waters  of 
Seltzer,  Spa  and  Pyrmont,  not  only  as  to  the  volatile  part,  but 
as  to  the  entire  contents  ;  and  the  use  of  these  waters  afterwards 
obtained  through  most  of  the  provinces  of  Sweden." 

The  apparatus  used  by  Bergman  in  impregnating  these 
waters  with  carbon  dioxide  is  described  elsewhere  (see  p.  85). 

About  the  year  1768  Thomas  Bewley  had  introduced  a  form 
of  soda  water,  obtained  by  mixing  an  acid  and  a  carbonate. 
This  he  described  by  the  singularly  ill-sounding  name  of 
"  mephitic  julep,"  the  term  "  mephitic  "  being  that  which 
he  had  previously  given  to  carbon  dioxide. 

1  "  Essays  of  Torbern  Bergman,"  translated  by  E.  Cullen,  M.D.  London,  1788, 
p.  107. 


ARTIFICIAL   MINERAL  WATERS  75 

This  preparation  was  in  great  demand  as  a  remedy  for  various 
diseases,  and  according  to  Henry,  writing  in  1781,  "  the  materia 
medica  perhaps  does  not  afford  a  more  efficacious  or  more 
grateful  medicine  in  putrid  fevers,  scurvy,  dysentery,  bilious 
vomitings,  hectic,  etc." 

Henry  in  his  pamphlet  already  quoted  gives  the  following 
directions  for  the  preparation  both  of  artificial  mineral  waters 
and  of  Mr.  Bewley's  mephitic  julep  by  means  of  his  impregnat- 
ing apparatus  (see  p.  92)  ; — 

PROCESS  FOR  MAKING  ARTIFICIAL  PYRMONT  WATER. 
To  every  gallon  of  spring  water  add  one  scruple  of  magnesia, 
30  grains  of  Epsom  salt,  10  grains  of  common  salt,  and  a  few  pieces 
of  iron  wire  or  filings.  The  operation  is  then  to  proceed  as  in  the 
process  for  impregnating  water  with  fixed  air ;  and  the  water  if 
intended  for  keeping  must  be  put  into  bottles  closely  corked  and 
sealed. 

THE  PROCESS  TO  MAKE  ARTIFICIAL  SELTZER  WATER. 
Add  one  scruple  of   magnesia  alba,  six  scruples  of  fossil  alkali,1 
and  four  scruples  of  common  salt  to  each  gallon  of  water,  and 
saturate  the  water,  as  above,  with  fixed  air. 

To  PREPARE  MR.  BEWLEY'S  JULEP. 

Dissolve  three  drams  of  fossil  alkali  in  each  quart  of  water,  and 
throw  in  streams  of  fixed  air,  till  the  alkaline  taste  be  destroyed. 
This  Julep  should  not  be  prepared  in  too  large  quantities  ;  and 
should  be  kept  in  bottles  very  closely  corked  and  sealed.  From 
four  ounces  of  it  may  be  taken  at  a  time,  drinking  a  draught  of 
lemonade,  or  water  acidulated  with  vinegar,  by  which  means  the 
fixed  air  will  be  extricated  in  the  stomach. 

In  the  year  1798  Cavallo  published  his  "  Essays  on  Factitious 
Airs,"  2  in  which  he  gives  the  following  directions  for  the 
preparation  of  "  acidulous  soda  water  "  : — 

One  ounce  of  soda  is  dissolved  in  four  or  five  pints  of  rain  or  of 
boiled  soft  water,  and  the  solution  is  then  impregnated  as  much  as 
possible  with  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Incidentally  he  remarks,  that  al  hough  only  a  moderate, 
though  efficacious,  quantity  of  gas  can  be  introduced  by  the  use 
of  Nooth's  glass  apparatus,  the  soda  water  then  "  prepared 

1  An  old  term  for  soda. 

"  An  Essay  on  the  Medicinal  Properties  of  Factitious  Airs,"  by  T.  Cavallo, 
F.R.S.     London,  1798. 


76  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

and  sold  in  London  by  a  Mr.  Schweppe  contains  an  incompar- 
ably larger  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  accordingly 
is  much  more  efficacious."  As  to  the  method  by  which  this 
is  done,  however,  Cavallo  admits  his  ignorance. 

This  passage  is  of  historical  interest,  since  it  shows  that 
"  soda  water  "  was  made  in  England  before  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  prior  to  the  establishment  of  Paul's 
factory. 

The  manufacture  of  artificial  mineral  waters  upon  a  large 
scale  may  be  said  to  have  begun  in  Geneva  about  1789,  when 
Nicholas  Paul  became  associated  with  Gosse,  an  apothecary 
of  that  town,  and  started  a  factory  where  all  kinds  of  natural 
medicinal  waters  were  imitated. 

After  a  branch  establishment  had  been  set  up  in  Paris,  a 
report  was  issued  in  1799  to  the  National  Institute  of  France 
upon  the  nature  and  preparation  of  the  mineral  waters  manu- 
factured by  this  firm,  and  subsequently,  when,  in  1802,  a  busi- 
ness, had  also  been  opened  in  London,  a  translation  of  this 
report  was  issued  as  an  advertisement.1 

From  this  circular  we  learn  that  the  following  varieties  of 
waters  were  prepared  : — (1)  Strong  Seltzer  water  ;  (2)  mild 
Seltzer  water  ;  (3)  strong  Spa  water  ;  (4)  weak  Spa  water  ; 
gaseous  alkaline  water  (commonly  called  mephitic)  ;  (6) 
Seidlitz  water  ;  (7)  oxygenated  water  ;  (8)  hydrocarbonated 
water  ;  and  (9)  sulphurated  or  hepatic  water. 

The  method  of  carbonating  some  of  the  waters  is  described 
on  p.  102. 

It  was  claimed,  further,  that  numerous  combinations  of 
these  waters  could  be  prepared,  which  "  might  be  more  effectual 
in  particular  cases  than  those  Nature  affords." 

So  successful  was  the  venture  at  Geneva  that  ten  years 
later  no  less  than  40,000  bottles  of  artificial  Seltzer  water  were 
annually  sold,  and  while  scarcely  any  mineral  waters  were 
imported  into  Geneva,  from  40,000  to  50,000  bottles  were 
exported  every  year. 

1  A  Report  made  to  the  National  Institute  of  France  in  December,  1799,  by 
Citizens  Portal,  Pelletal,  Fourcroy,  Chaptal  and  Vauquelin,  respecting  the  Arti- 
ficial Mineral  Waters  prepared  at  Paris  by  Nicholas  Paul  and  Co.  London,  1802. 


ARTIFICIAL   MINERAL   WATERS  77 

These  figures  were  supplied  by  Paul  himself,  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  National  Institute  of  France  in  the  year  1799. 

An  appendix  to  Paul's  circular  of  1802  contains  a  communi- 
cation by  Dr.  W.  Saunders  to  the  Medical  and  Physical  Journal 
of  that  year,  which  is  noteworthy  for  the  following  passage  :— 
"  The  gaseous  alkaline  water  commonly  called  soda  water 
has  long  been  used  in  this  country  to  a  considerable  extent." 

This  shows  that  the  name  "  soda  water,"  was  in  general  use 
in  this  country  long  before  the  beginning  of  the  last  century. 

It  was  not  long  before  there  were  many  other  factories 
preparing  imitation  mineral  waters  (as  distinct  from  ordinary 
carbonated  water),  although  during  the  first  ten  years  of  the 
last  century  they  had  to  contend  with  violent  opposition  on 
the  part  of  medical  men. 

Thus,  again,  to  quote  the  words  of  Muspratt,  though  in 
another  connection  : — "  They  [artificial  mineral  waters]  were 
said  to  be  devoid  of  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  natural  mineral 
and  spa  waters — to  be  minus  a  certain  conditio  sine  qua  non 
in  the  shape  of  a  spiritus  rectus,  or  vital  force,  which  imparted 
the  medicinal  qualities." 

This  prejudice  against  artificial  mineral  waters  gradually 
died  away,  because — to  use  Muspratt's  grandiloquent  words — 
"  Chemistry,  the  great  revealer  of  hidden  treasures,  has 
demonstrated  to  a  certainty  what  the  constituents  of  the 
natural  waters  are  ;  and  thus  one  is  now  enabled  to  produce 
artificial  waters  quite  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  the  natural 
ones. 

'  The  rapid  increase  and  spread  of  the  manufacture  of 
artificial  waters  is  the  best  proof  that  physicians  find  the 
medical  and  therapeutic  effects  of  them  are  identical  with  those 
of  the  natural  ones,  whilst  their  identity  in  a  physical  and 
chemical  point  of  view  can  hardly  be  questioned." 

It  may  be  remarked  that  the  "  proof  "  given  in  this  passage 
is  not  convincing,  nor  is  it  in  accord  with  other  observations 
made  by  the  same  writer  (see  p.  37). 

Similar  attempts  were  made  about  the  same  time  in  France, 
Germany,  and  Sweden  to  substitute  artificial  preparations  for 
the  natural  waters.  Thus  imitation  Carlsbad  and  Friedrich- 


78      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

shalle  waters  were  manufactured  on  a  large  scale,  the  ingredients 
of  which  were  based  upon  an  analysis  by  Liebig,  and  met  with 
a  ready  sale. 

Struve's  Artificial  Mineral  Waters. — The  rise  of  Struve's 
establishments  for  the  preparation  of  artificial  mineral  waters 
forms  an  interesting  chapter  in  the  history  of  the  industry. 

Struve,  who  was  a  doctor  in  Dresden,  underwent  a  course 
of  "  taking  the  waters  "  at  Marienbad,  and  received  such 
unexpected  benefit  from  them  that  he  began  to  study  the  chemi- 
cal and  medicinal  properties  of  all  the  leading  German  mineral 
waters,  and  to  attempt  to  imitate  them  exactly. 

He  made  minute  analyses  of  the  waters  of  the  different  springs, 
and  by  the  year  1820  had  prepared  artificial  waters,  which  he 
gave  to  his  friends.  Then,  owing  to  an  increasing  demand  in 
many  directions,  for  his  imitation  waters,  he  opened  a  public 
pump-room  in  1821  in  Dresden  for  their  manufacture  and  sale, 
and  this  was  followed  in  the  two  next  years  by  similar 
establishments  in  Leipzic  and  Berlin. 

In  the  year  1825  a  pump-room  was  started  at  Brighton,  and 
other  branches  were  opened  in  the  following  years  at  various 
places  in  Russia  and  in  other  towns  in  Germany,  until,  finally, 
there  were  fourteen  thriving  establishments  in  all. 

From  a  contemporary  account l  we  learn  that  hundreds  of 
invalids  came  to  these  pump-rooms  in  preference  to  the  natural 
springs,  and  that  medical  men  in  Germany  recommended 
them  as  being  quite  equal  to  the  natural  waters. 

In  a  pamphlet  published  in  18232,  Struve  mentioned  that 
upwards  of  4,000  patients  had  already  used  his  artificial  waters 
made  by  means  of  apparatus  which  he  had  invented.  "  Mineral 
waters  thus  prepared,"  he  remarks,  "  are  found  to  contain  all 
the  properties  and  qualities,  in  the  most  minute  degree,  of 
their  corresponding  natural  mineral  springs,  as  well  in  effect 
produced  on  the  human  body  in  its  most  refined  distinctions, 


1  "  Observations  on  the  Artificial  Mineral  Waters  of  Dr.  Struve,"  by  W.  King, 
M.D.     Brighton,  1820. 

2  "  Remarks  on  an  Institution  for  the  Preparation  and  Use  of  Artificial  Mineral 
Waters  in  Great  Britain,"  by  F.  A.  Struve,  M.D.     London,  1823. 


ARTIFICIAL   MINERAL   WATERS 


79 


as  in  their  chemical  analysis,  taste,  intensity  of  union,  and 
manner  of  their  decomposition  when  exposed  to  air." 

In  these  respects  Struve  claimed  that  his  products  differed 
materially  from  the  artificial  mineral  waters  previously 
manufactured,  which  were  very  different  from  the  natural 
waters  they  professed  to  imitate.  Attempts  had  only  been 
made  to  introduce  the  chief  saline  ingredients,  whereas  the 
action  of  natural  mineral  waters  was  the  result  of  the  combined 
action  of  all  the  elements  present.  None  of  them  were  without 
their  influence. 


FIG.  18. — The  "  German  Spa  "  at  Brighton. 

The  prospectus  issued  by  Struve  in  1826,  concerning  his 
"  German  Spa  in  Brighton  for  the  Preparation  of  Factitious 
Mineral  Waters,"  contains  many  further  curious  details.  It 
describes  the  classes  of  hot  and  cold  waters  to  be  obtained 
at  the  pump-rooms,  and  gives  a  table  of  Struve's  analyses  of 
the  principal  natural  mineral  waters,  together  with  rules 
as  to  diet  while  taking  the  artificial  preparations. 

The  charge  for  "  taking  the  waters,"  hot  and  cold,  at  the 
Brighton  Spa  was  £1  Is.  Od.  per  week,  and  the  cold  waters, 
including  imitations  of  those  of  Spa,  Pyrmont,  Eger,  Marienbad, 
Seidschutz,  Piillna,  Seltzer  and  Geilnau,  could  be  obtained  in 


80 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


quart  bottles  at  Brighton  or  from  London  agents  at  the  price 
of  £1  4-5.  per  dozen. 

The  prospectus  also  stated  that  Faraday  had  examined  the 
artificial  Carlsbad  water,  and  allowed  a  reference  to  be  made  to 
him  as  to  its  chemical  correctness. 

Although  the  venture  at  Brighton  met  with  a  large  measure 
of  commercial  success,  over  three  hundred  .thousand  pint 
bottles  of  the  different  artificial  mineral  waters  being  sent 
out  every  year  from  the  "  Spa  "  to  all  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
these  products  were  nevertheless  made  the  subject  of  much 
adverse  criticism. 


11.11 


FIG.  19. — Preparation  of  Artificial  Mineral  Waters  at  Struve's 
Establishment  in  Dresden,  1853. 

For  example,  Granville,  writing  in  18431  of  the  so-called 
Ems  and  Carlsbad  waters  prepared  at  Brighton  by  Struve's 
process,  described  them  as  merely  watery  solutions  of  the  same 
chemical  ingredients  contained  in  the  natural  springs,  charged 
with  artificial  heat,  and  therefore  incapable  of  producing  the 
effects  of  the  genuine  waters  when  taken  at  the  springs. 

Granville  attributed  the  different  results  produced  by  the 
natural  and  artificial  waters  to  the  temperature  of  the  former 
as  being  due  to  a  peculiar  form  of  heat,  which  he  described 

1  "  The  Spas  of  Germany  Revisited,"  by  A.  B.  Granville,  M.D.,  F,R,S, 
London,  1843. 


ARTIFICIAL   MINERAL    WATKKS  81 

as    "  telluric,"    and   when   that   heat   was   dissipated   it   was 
impossible  to  supply  its  place  by  artificial  means  (see  p.  36). 

Struve  died  in  1840,  but  his  "  spas  "  were  then  firmly 
established,  and  thirteen  years  later  an  account  of  their 
progress  and  of  the  method  of  preparation  of  the  artificial  waters 
in  the  parent  establishment  in  Dresden  was  published.1 

Freshly  distilled  water  formed  the  basis,  and  the  carbon 
dioxide  was  made  from  crushed  marble  or  magnesite  (magnesium 
carbonate)  and  sulphuric  acid  in  the  leaden  cylinder,  shown  on 
the  right  of  the  illustration.  The  gas  passed  through  the 
series  of  washing  bottles  into  the  gasometer,  whence  it  was 
drawn  off  by  means  of  a  pump,  and  forced  under  pressure  into 
tin  cylinders  (on  the  left).  These  had  previously  been  charged 
with  the  distilled  water,  and  had  received  the  requisite  pro- 
portions of  the  different  salts  in  the  form  of  solutions,  each 
of  these  being  introduced  in  the  proper  order. 

The  carbonated  water  was  then  bottled  under  pressure  (say 
about  four  atmospheres)  in  strong  glass  bottles. 

The  process  was  thus  very  similar  to  that  used  with  the  early 
German  apparatus  described  on  p.  106,  with  the  exception 
that  patent  machinery  (p.  107)  was  employed. 

Fashion  alters,  however,  even  in  medicine,  and  according 
to  Hirsch  and  Siedler2  the  manufacture  of  artificial  mineral 
waters  in  Germany  has  now  developed  in  another  direction. 

During  the  first  years  after  their  introduction,  the  aim  of 
their  producers  was  to  make  exact  imitations  of  natural  waters, 
every  ingredient  being  slavishly  added  without  any  attempt  at 
criticism. 

But  since  many  natural  waters  contain  substances  which 
modify  the  chief  medicinal  action  of  these  waters,  or  which,  like 
calcium  sulphate  and  carbonate,  are  even  injurious  to  digestion, 
it  is  now  regarded  as  more  rational  to  use  the  artificial  waters 
as  the  media  for  special  drugs. 

Substances  are  therefore  introduced  into  them  which  do 
not  occur  in  natural  mineral  waters,  or  are  only  present  in  a 

1  "  Die  Struve' schen  Mineral  Wasser  Anstalten."     Leipzic,  1853. 

"  Die  Fabrication  Kiinstlichen  Mineralwasser,"  by  B.  Hirsch  and  P.  Siecller 
Brunswick,  1897. 

M.W.  G 


82  MINERAL   AND   AERATED  WATERS 

small  proportion,  and  the  predominant  medicinal  qualities  of 
a  given  natural  water  are  thus  accentuated. 

In  these  writers'  opinion  the  manufacturer  who  advertises 
that  any  artificial  mineral  waters  may  be  regarded  as  the  com- 
plete equivalent  of  a  "  cure  "  at  the  springs  themselves  makes 
an  unjustifiable  claim  and  injures  his  reputation,  since  the  use 
of  either  natural  or  artificial  mineral  waters  at  home  cannot 
take  the  place  of  treatment  with  the  natural  waters  upon  the 
spot. 

In  this  country,  too,  the  demand  for  the  artificial  mineral 
waters  made  in  exact  imitation  of  the  natural  products  gradually 
waned,  their  place  being  taken  by  soda,  potash,  and  lithia 
waters,  the  first  two  of  which  became  recognised  as  official  drugs 
in  the  London  Pharmacopoeia  of  1836,  and  the  third  in  the 
British  Pharmacopoeia  of  1867. 

Another  factor  that  led  to  the  decline  in  the  manufacture 
was  the  introduction  and  increasing  use  of  natural  spring 
waters,  carbonated  under  pressure  so  that  they  would  keep 
well  (see  p.  28). 

Occasionally  artificial  preparations  may  still  be  made  to 
meet  a  special  order,  but  with  the  exception  of  Seltzer  water, 
which  now  seldom  corresponds  in  composition  with  the  natural 
Selterswasser,  the  manufacture  of  imitation  mineral  spring 
waters  in  this  country  is  but  rarely  attempted. 

The  formulae  for  such  imitations,  however,  still  continue 
to  be  published  in  handbooks,  especially  those  of  American 
origin.  Thus  to  quote  from  one  of  these  • — "  All  that  is  re- 
quired is  that  this  compound  be  properly  carbonated  with 
pure  gas,  and  suffering  humanity  have  no  occasion  to  visit 
the  '  springs  '  for  the  benefits  derived  from  the  use  of  any 
particular  natural  mineral  waters,  .  .  .  but  the  preparation 
of  the  artificial  waters  must  be  left  in  the  hands  of  responsible, 
practical  manufacturers  of  carbonic  acid  gas  waters,  not  such 
as  follow  old  '  formulas  '  or  '  theories  '  copied  from  cook  books 
and  family  recipes  of  their  grandfathers,  and  make  a  stuff 
which,  instead  of  the  mild,  soft,  and  pungent  taste  of  the 
genuine,  produced  by  effectual  carbonation,  tastes  just  like 
any  other  salt  water." 


ARTIFICIAL   MINERAL   WATERS  83 

Artificial  Radio-active  Mineral  Waters. — The  discovery  of 
the  radio-activity  of  many  natural  spring  waters  (see  p.  37), 
and  the  growing  belief  that  the  therapeutic  action  of  the  so- 
called  "  indifferent  "  waters  of  Bath  and  elsewhere  is  to  be 
attributed  to  this  property,  has  led  to  the  manufacture  of 
waters  rendered  radio-active  (or  of  increased  radio-activity)  by 
artificial  means. 

For  this  purpose  a  minute  quantity  of  a  salt  of  radium,  such 
as  the  sulphate,  is  dissolved  in  a  definite  quantity  of  either  a 
water  already  radio-active,  such  as  that  of  Kreuznach,  or  in 
ordinary  water  (see  also  p.  43). 

In  the  case  of  naturally  radio-active  mineral  waters  the 
property  of  radio-activity  rapidly  disappears  after  the  water  has 
been  drawn  from  the  spring,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen  to  what 
extent  a  water  rendered  radio-active  by  artificial  means  is  as 
effective  physiologically  as  the  natural  water,  and  for  how  long 
a  period  it  retains  its  properties. 

The  methods  of  estimating  the  radio-activity  of  waters, 
whether  natural  or  artificial,  are  described  elsewhere  (p.  40). 


CHAPTER    VII 


EARLY  FORMS  OF  CARBONATING  APPARATUS 

THE  notion  of  artificially  impregnating  water  with  carbon 
dioxide  dates  back  to  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  was  evidently  suggested  by  the  discovery  that  the  efferves- 
cence of  the  waters  of  Spa  and  Pyrmont  was  due  to  their  being 
saturated  with  "  fixed  air  "  (see  p.  65). 

In  the  year  1767  Cavendish  described  an  experiment 
which  showed  how  much  of  the  gas  a  given  volume  of  water 

could  be  made  to  absorb,  but 
did  not  turn  his  results  to  any 
practical  purpose. 

The  apparatus  used  by  Caven- 
dish in  estimating  the  amount 
of  carbon  dioxide  in  Rathbone 
Place  water  was  of  the  simplest 
description,  as  is  seen  in  Fig.  20, 
reproduced  from  the  rough 
sketch  in  his  original  paper.1 

A  tin  vessel,  HKL,  was  in- 
verted in  another  vessel  of  the 
water,  ACDE,  and  a  bottle,  M, 

also  filled  with  the  water,  was 
FIG.  20 -Cavendish's  Apparatus  for     ld  th  k      f    th 

Estimating  Carbon  Dioxide  in  F 
Water.  inner  vessel.      On   heating   the 

outer  vessel,  the  dissolved  gases 

were  collected  in  the  bottle,  M,  and  the  amount  of  carbon 
dioxide  was  estimated  by  absorption  with  a  solution  of  caustic 
alkali. 

The  notion  of  impregnating  water  with  carbon  dioxide  may 
be   traced  in  the   writings  of  several  chemists  at  about  that 

1  "  Experiments  on  Rathbone  Place  Water,"  by  the  Hon.  H.  Cavendish.     Phil. 
Trans.  Eoy.  Soc.,  1767,  LVIL,  p.  92. 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     85 

time  ;  but  there  is  some  doubt  as  to  whom  should  be  given 
credit  for  its  practical  utilisation. 

On  the  whole,  it  appears  probable  that  the  process  was 
independently  devised  by  Bergman  and  by  Priestley,  and  that 
the  former  was  a  little  ahead  of  the  English  chemist. 

Bergman  has  related  in  his  "  Physical  and  Chemical  Essays  " 
(see  p.  74)  the  circumstances  that  induced  him  in  the  year 
1770  to  attempt  to  imitate  naturally  effervescent  waters, 


FIG.  21. — Bergman's  Impregnating  Apparatus,  1770. 

and  in  another  place  1  he  describes  and  gives  the  annexed  illus- 
tration (Fig.  21)  of  the  apparatus  he  used  for  the  impregnation. 
It  consisted  of  a  bottle,  A,  which  was  half  filled  with  water  and 
coarse  lumps  of  chalk,  and  into  which  sulphuric  acid  was  allowed 
to  drop  through  the  funnel,  0,  the  tube  of  which  was  loosely 
closed  by  a  glass  rod,  in  the  manner  suggested  by  Lavoisier. 

The  gas  was  conducted  through  the  tube  into  the  inverted 
bottle,  which  was  partially  filled  with  water  and  suspended  in 

1  Loc.  cit.,  p.  265. 


86 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


the  basin  of  water.  Round  the  tube,  passing  up  into  its  neck, 
was  tied  a  wet  bladder  to  confine  the  "  aerial  acid,"  and  the 
escape  of  the  gas  was  regulated  by  having  a  small  pinhole  in 
the  bladder. 

Bergman  also  describes  an  apparatus  for  impregnating  water 
with  the  fixed  air  derived  from  a  fermenting  liquid,  but 
mentions  that  it  is  inconvenient  owing  to  its  requiring  a  very 
large  vessel  to  contain  the  fermenting  gas. 


FIG.  22. — Priestley's  Original  Apparatus,  1772. 

In  the  year  1772  Priestley  published  his  pamphlet  (see 
p.  68),  and  in  the  following  year  Bergman  became  acquainted 
with  Priestley's  method,  and  from  that  time  onwards  used 
it  in  place  of  his  own. 

In  Priestley's  first  apparatus  the  method  of  collecting  the 
carbon  dioxide  was  the  same  as  that  used  by  Bergman,  the  gas 
being  led  from  the  bottle  in  which  it  had  been  generated  from 
marble  and  sulphuric  acid  into  a  flask  containing  water,  and 
inverted  in  a  basin  of  water.  The  pipe  between  the  flasks 


EARLY   FOKMS   OF   CABBONATING    APPABATUS     H7 


was  made  of  leather,  the  end  being  kept  open  by  pieces  of 
quill  (Fig.  22). 

Subsequently,  Priestley  improved  his  apparatus  by  placing 
between  the  "  effervescing  vessel  "  and  the  collecting  flask  a 
bladder,  which  would  serve  as  a  primitive  form  of  gasometer, 
and  by  the  compression  of  which  the  gas  would  be  driven 
forward  with  some  degree  of  force  into  the  water  to  be  impreg- 
nated. 

The  mode  of  working  this 
apparatus  will  be  understood 
without  further  description 
from  the  accompanying  figure 
(Fig.  23) ,  taken  from  Priestley's 
pamphlet  (p.  68). 

A  passage  in  another  paper 
by  Priestley  1  is  of  interest  in 
this  connection,  since  it  fore- 
shadows the  invention  of  the 
process  of  carbonating  liquids 
under  high  pressure  on  a  large 
scale  with  the  aid  of  a  force- 
pump  : — "  I  do  not  doubt," 
he  remarks,  "  but  that  by  the 
help  of  a  condensing  engine, 
water  might  be  much  more 
highly  impregnated  with  the 
virtues  of  the  Pyrmont  Spring, 
and  it  would  not  be  difficult  to  contrive  a  method  of  doing  it." 

The  method  of  regulating  the  supply  of  the  acid  to  the  chalk, 
described  on  p.  85.  appears  to  have  been  adopted  by  Bergman 
from  a  device  of  Lavoisier,2  who  suggested  the  two  forms  of 
apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  24. 

In  the  first  of  these  a  glass  rod  was  ground  with  emery  powder 
until  it  fitted  closely  into  the  neck  of  the  funnel.  The  acid 
could  then  be  made  to  enter  the  flask  as  slowly  as  desired  by 
gently  raising  the  glass  rod. 


FIG.  23.— Priestley's  Modified 
Apparatus,  1772. 


1  Phil  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.,  1772,  LXIL,  p.  155. 

2  Lavoisier:  "  Traite  Elcmontaire  de  Chimie,"  Paris,  1789. 


88  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

In  the  other  apparatus  a  long  bent  tube  ending  in  a  capillary 
opening  at  D,  and  having  a  funnel  at  the  other  end,  was  fitted 
into  the  cork  of  the  flask.  Any  acid  poured  into  the  funnel 
would  pass  the  bend  and  fall  slowly  into  the  bottle,  and  so 
long  as  there  was  a  constant  supply  of  the  liquid  its  introduction 
into  the  flask  would  proceed  regularly. 

In  these  two  devices  we  have  the  beginnings  of  the  automatic 
feeding  arrangements,  controlled  by  valves,  which  have  been 
fitted  to  the  acid  tanks  in  various  forms  of  mineral  water 
plant,  with  the  object  of  regulating  the  supply  of  acid  to  the 
generator  (see  p.  132). 


FIG.  24. — Lavoisier's  Devices  for  Regulating  an  Acid  Supply. 

Nooth's  Apparatus. — Priestley's  apparatus  had  the  drawback 
of  requiring  some  degree  of  skill  to  handle,  so  that  it  was  not 
altogether  suitable  for  general  use  by  the  public.  Being  con- 
structed in  separate  parts,  it  was  not  readily  portable,  and 
leakage  of  the  gas  was  liable  to  occur  at  the  points  of 
connection. 

It  was  thus  a  great  advance  on  anything  previously  devised, 
when  Nooth  designed  his  compact  apparatus  for  impregnating 
water  and  other  fluids  with  fixed  air. 

In  the  paper  that  he  read  before  the  Royal  Society1  he  gave 
full  credit  to  Priestley  for  his  suggestion  of  the  idea,  but 
claimed  that  he  had  obviated  the  drawbacks  in  his  predecessor's 
apparatus. 

1  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.,  1775,  LXV.,  p.  59. 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     89 


A  glance  at  the  illustration  (Fig.  25)  of  this  apparatus  shows 
that  it  may  be  regarded  as  the  prototype,  both  of  the  modern 
gasogenes  and  of  the  well-known  Kipp's  gas  apparatus  used  in 
every  chemical  laboratory  to-day. 

It  consists  of  three  glass  vessels,  the 
fittings  of  which  were  ground  so  as  to  form 
perfectly  air-tight  joints.  The  chalk  and 
acid  were  placed  in  the  lower  vessel,  c, 
while  the  middle  chamber,  6,  was  open, 
both  above  and  below,  and  was  charged 
with  water.  In  the  neck,  h,  of  this  vessel 
was  fitted  a  glass  valve,  made  from  two 
pieces  of  tube,  with  a  movable  plano- 
convex lens  between  them  (see  Fig.  26). 

This  valve  opened  upwards  and  allowed 
the  gas  to  pass,  while  water  was  prevented 
from  returning  by  the  action  of  the  lens, 
and  also  on  account  of  the  glass  tube 
having  only  a  capillary  bore. 

The  uppermost  vessel,  a,  received  the  water  forced  upwards 
by  the  pressure  of  the  gas,  and  the  air  was  expelled  from  the 
apparatus  through  the  opening,  k,  at  the  top,  which  could  be 
closed  by  the  stopper,  /. 

In  order  to  accelerate  the  impregnation 
of  the  liquid  in  the  middle  chamber,  the 
two  top  vessels  were  disconnected  from 
the  bottom  one  and  shaken. 

Nooth  stated  that  by  means  of  this 
apparatus  he  had  been  able  to  imitate  very 
perfectly  the  common  mineral  waters. 

He  claimed  that  there  was  no  risk  of 
any  explosion  in  using  his  apparatus  ;  but, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  defective  working 
of  the  valve  sometimes  caused  the  lowest 


FIG.  25.—  Nooth's 
Apparatus,  1775. 


FIG.  26. — Valve  in 
Nooth's  Apparatus. 


vessel  to  burst. 

The  reason  for  this  was  that  the  gas  was  not 
forced  through  the  capillary  tube  until  considerable  pressure 
had  been  produced  in  the  generator,  and  occasionally 


90  MINEEAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

the    glass     was     not     strong     enough     to     withstand     this 
pressure. 

Modifications  of  Nooth's  Apparatus.— Hence,  Skrimshire, 
writing  in  1804  on  the  use  of  Nooth's  apparatus,  remarks1  :— 
<l  When  the  mixture  of  the  acid  and  chalk  is  carelessly  made 
there  is  so  much  gas  suddenly  evolved  as  frequently  to  burst 
the  vessel  and  inconvenience  the  operator." 

Several  modifications  of  Nooth's  apparatus  were  proposed, 
and  improved  vessels  were  devised  by  Parker  and  others,  and 
were  sent  all  over  the  world. 

In  the  year  1777  J.  Magellan  published  a  pamphlet  in  the 
form  of  a  letter  to  Priestley,  in  which  he  gives  a  description  of 
"  a  glass  apparatus  for  making  Mineral  Waters  like  those  of 
Pyrmont,  Spa,  Seltzer,  etc.,  in  a  few  minutes  and  with  a  very 
little  Expence." 

Essentially,  this  apparatus  consisted  of  two  separate  Nooth's 
vessels,  each  containing  the  two  upper  bulbs.  When  the 
water  in  the  first  of  these  was  saturated  with  the  gas,  the 
upper  portions  were  removed  and  placed  in  a  stand,  while 
their  place  was  taken  by  the  similar  bulbs  from  the  other 
vessel.  The  complete  absorbtion  of  the  gas  by  the  water  in 
the  first  bulbs  was  then  effected  by  shaking  them  in  their 
stand. 

In  Withering's2  apparatus,  which  was  brought  out  as  an 
improvement  upon  that  of  Priestley,  the  use  of  bladders  was 
still  further  extended.  The  gas  was  generated  from  acid 
and  chalk  in  the  conical  vessel,  A,  which  was  closed  by  a  cork 
with  three  openings  for  tubes.  To  one  of  these  was  tied  a 
bladder  by  the  pressure  of  which  the  gas  could  be  driven  forward 
through  the  central  tube  into  the  saturating  vessel,  B,  while  the 
third  tube  was  intended  for  the  introduction  of  fresh  acid. 

By  closing  the  lower  tap  above  the  saturating  vessel  the 

1  "  Series  of  Chymical  Essays,"  p.  131,  by  F  Skrimshire,  M.D.     London,  1804. 

2  There  is  no  mention  of  this  apparatus  in  the  "  Miscellaneous  Tracts  of  the 
late  William  Withering,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,"  1822  ;   and  the  present  writer  wishes  to 
acknowledge    his    indebtedness   to    Mr.    W.    Kirby's    "  Evolution    of    Artificial 
Mineral  Waters "  for  the  details  upon  which  this  description  and  diagram  have 
been  based. 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     91 


two  bladders,  C,  C,  were  filled  with  the  gas,  after  which  this 
tap  was  opened  and  the  water  impregnated  with  the  gas. 
The  upper  tap  was  then  closed,  and  the  vessel,  A,  detached 
from  the  generator,  B,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27.  The  saturation 
of  the  liquid  with  the  gas  was  now  completed  by  shaking  the 
vessel,  the  process  being  assisted  by  the  pressure  of  the  carbon 
dioxide  in  the  two  bladders,  C,  C.  The  tap  at  the  bottom 
of  this  bottle  was  in- 
tended for  drawing  off 
the  carbonated  water. 
The  use  of  a  barrel 
in  place  of  small  glass 
vessels  to  contain  the 
water  to  be  impreg- 
nated with  the  gas 
must  have  suggested 
itself  both  to  Bergman 
and  to  Priestley,  but 
the  first  forms  of  appa- 
ratus for  making  larger 
quantities  of  carbo- 
nated water  actually 
described  were  those 
devised  by  Duchanoy 
in  1780  in  France,  and 
by  Henry  in  1781  in 
this  country. 

~      ,  FIG.  27. — Witherine's  Apparatus. 

Duchanoy  s  Appara- 
tus.— In  Duchanoy's  apparatus,  a  description  of  which  is 
given  in  his  book  l  on  the  imitation  of  mineral  waters,  the  gas 
was  generated  from  chalk  and  acid  and  conducted  through  a 
glass  tube  into  a  barrel  of  water,  as  shown  in  the  illustration 
(Fig.  28). 

Duchanoy  also  quotes,  in  the  inventor's  words,  a  description 
of  the  agitator  invented  a  few  years  previously  by  the  Due 


1  "  Essais  sur  1'Art   d'Imiter   Ics   Eaux   Mhu'rales." 
1780. 


M.     Duchanoy,   Paris, 


92 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


$e    Chaulnes,    the    object    of    which    was    to    accelerate    the 

impregnation  of  the  water  by  the  gas. 

This  agitator  consisted  of  a 
spindle,  which  passed  through  an 
opening  in  the  barrel,  and  was 
capable  of  being  moved  up  and 
down.  Near  the  end,  at  intervals 
of  an  inch  or  two,  were  fixed  four 
small  cross  pieces  about  six  inches 
long  so  as  to  form  radial  arms, 
and  these  were  connected  together 
by  a  number  of  pliable  twigs 
arranged  at  different  angles.  A 
handle  could  be  attached  to  the 

FIG.  28.— Duchanoy's  Carbonat-    top   of  the    spindle   outside   the 
ing  Apparatus,  1780. 

barrel,    and    by    giving    this    a 

few   turns,  three  or  four  gallons  of  liquid  could  be  saturated 
with  carbon  dioxide  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes. 


Henry's    Apparatus.— 

Henry's  aerating  apparatus 
was  primarily  intended  for 
medicinal  purposes,  so  as  to 
obtain  larger  quantities  of  the 
new  remedy  against  scurvy. 

As  Nooth's  vessel  was  only 
sufficient  for  family  use,  and 
"  would  be  too  small  for  the 
sickly  crew  of  a  large  ship," 
Henry  substituted  a  small 
barrel,  holding  from  10  to  12 
gallons,  for  the  glass  vessel 
containing  the  water  (Fig. 
29). 

The  water  or  other  liquid 
to  be  carbonated  was  placed 


Fig.  29. — Henry's  Aerating 
Apparatus,  1781. 


in  this   barrel,    while   the  gas   was   generated   in    the    small 
glass  vessel,  which,  as  in  the  case  of  Priestley's  apparatus, 


EAELY  FORMS   OF   CABBONATING   APPARATUS     93 

was  provided  with  a  bladder  to  retain  particles  of  acid  and 
to  drive  the  gas  forward  into  the  water. 

The  original  air  was  expelled  from  the  cask -through  a  small 
vent  in  the  top,  and  this  also  served  to  reduce  the  pressure  when 
necessary.  Some  of  the  water  was  at  first  driven  upwards 
into  the  glass  funnel,  the  stopper  of  which  was  then  replaced, 
and  in  proportion  as  the  water  in  the  cask  absorbed  the 
gas,  this  water  in  the  funnel  was  drawn  downwards  again. 

Henry  published  a  pamphlet  giving  directions  for  the  use 
of  this  apparatus  in  preparing  various  mineral  waters,  and 
aerating  beer  or  cider.1 

His  directions  for  the  preparation  of  artificial  mineral  waters 
by  means  of  this  apparatus  are  given  elsewhere  (p.  75). 

The  agitator  of  the  Due  de  Chaulnes,  described  by  Duchanoy, 
was  subsequently  also  added  to  this  apparatus,  and  a  valve 
was  placed  between  the  bladder  and  the  generating  vessel, 
with  the  object  of  preventing  any  of  the  gas  being  driven 
backward  instead  of  forward. 


Haygarth's  Impregnating  Machine. — At  about  the  same  time 
that  Henry  had  devised  his  apparatus  an  ingenious  impregna- 
ting machine  had  been  constructed  by  Haygarth,  who  was 
also  a  medical  man,  and  he  gave  the  idea  and  plans  of  his 
apparatus  to  Henry  to  publish. 

In  the  year  1781  the  latter  read  a  paper  before  the  Literary 
and  Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester  on  the  "  Preservation 
of  Sea  Water  from  Putrefaction,"  and  to  this  he  added  as  an 
appendix  "  An  Account  of  a  Newly-invented  Machine  for 
Impregnating  Water  or  other  Fluids  with  Fixed  Air,"  which 
had  been  communicated  to  him  by  Dr.  Haygarth. 

It  was  not  until  four  years  later  that  a  description,  illustrated 
by  plates,  of  this  machine  was  published  in  the  first  volume  of 
the  "  Memoirs  of  the  Society."  2 

1  "  An  Account  of  a  Method  of  Preserving  Water  at  Sea,  to  which  is  added  a 
Mode  of  Impregnating  Water  in  large  Quantities  with  Fixed  Air.     For  the  Use  of 
the  Sick  on  Board   of  Ships  and  in  Hospitals,"   by   Thomas  Henry,  F.R.S., 
Warrington,  1781. 

2  "  Memoirs  of  the  Lit.  and  Phil.  Soc.,  Manchester,"  1785,  I.,  p.  51. 


94       MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  30), 
Haygarth's  machine  consisted  of  two  communicating  chambers 
and  an  "  effervescing  vessel  "  or  generator,  in  which  the  carbon 
dioxide  was  prepared  from  chalk  and  oil  of  vitriol,  and  a  pair  of 
bellows  fixed  above  the  cylinders. 

The  gas   on  leaving   the  generator,   E,   entered   the   "  air 


FIG.  30. — Haygarth's  Impregnating  Machine,  1781. 

vessel,"  A,  the  original  air  being  expelled  through  the  opening, 
O.  It  was  then  drawn  up  into  the  air  valve  of  the  bellows,  B, 
through  the  pipe,  PP,  and  thus  forced  forward  into  the  "water 
vessel,"  W,  which  had  previously  been  charged  to  about  half 
its  capacity  with  water  or  other  liquid  to  be  impregnated. 

The  gas  not  absorbed  by  the  water  returned  to  the  "  air 
vessel  "  through  the  pipes,  c,  c,  above  the  level  of  the  liquid,  and 
was  thus  brought  into  the  circulation  again,  this  process  being 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING  APPARATUS     95 

continued  until  the  saturation  under  the  low  pressure  obtainable 
was  complete. 

As  it  was  found  in  practice  that  the  working  of  the  bellows 
was  very  difficult,  a  bladder  filled  with  carbon  dioxide  was  tied 
over  the  opening,  O,  in  the  air  vessel,  after  all  air  had  been 
expelled  from  the  apparatus,  and  with  this  addition  the  gas 
could  readily  be  driven  forward. 

The  impregnated  water  was  drawn  off  into  bottles  through 
the  tube  at  the  bottom  of  the  "  water  vessel,"  this  opening 
being  kept  corked  and  wired  until  the  end  of  the  impregnation. 

The  principle  of  Haygarth's  machine  was  adopted  in  practice 
as  a  manufacturing  process,  and  as  late  as  the  year  1825 
"  carbonated  water  and  other  liquors  such  as  spirituous, 


EIG.  31. — Carbonating  plant  used  in  London  in  1825. 

saccharine  and  aromatic  "  were  thus  impregnated  by  the  gas. 
According  to  Mackenzie,1  who  gives  the  accompanying  diagram 
of  the  machine  used  for  the  impregnation  "  in  a  large  way," 
these  liquors  were  saturated  with  the  gas  under  considerable 
pressure,  which  was  reduced  in  part  when  they  were  bottled. 

This  machine  consisted  of  an  air-tight  barrel,  which  could  be 
made  to  rotate  by  turning  the  handle.  The  gas  was  generated 
from  chalk  and  dilute  sulphuric  acid  in  the  bottle,  B,  and 
entered  into  the  bellows,  D,  which  were  varnished  to  make 
them  air-tight.  As  soon  as  the  bellows  had  been  distended 
to  their  full  extent,  the  cock,  0,  was  opened,  and  a  weight,  E, 
was  placed  upon  the  top  of  the  bellows,  with  the  result  that  the 
gas  was  driven  forward  under  a  certain  degree  of  pressure  into 
the  barrel  (Fig.  31). 

1  "  One  thousand  Processes  in  Manufacture,"  by  C.  Mackenzie,  Operative 
Chemist.  London,  1825. 


96  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

This  had  meanwhile  been  filled  to  about  half  its  capacity 
with  distilled  or  spring  water,  and,  after  expulsion  of  the  air 
by  the  carbon  dioxide,  the  bung  was  replaced  and  fixed  down 
by  means  of  a  jointed  hoop. 

The  barrel  was  provided  with  a  perforated  false  bottom, 
and  the  impregnation  of  the  water  was  accelerated  by  quickly 
turning  the  handle  backwards  and  forwards  a  few  times,  and 
finally  stone  bottles  were  rapidly  filled  from  the  tap  with  the 
"  carbonated  water,"  and  their  corks  bound  down  with  copper 
wire. 

As  thus  prepared  the  carbonated  water  is  stated  to  have 
kept  well  for  many  months.  It  could  be  obtained  as  a  drink 
at  "  various  establishments  in  London." 

Hydraulic  Bellows.— The  next  advance  in  the  development 
of  carbonating  machinery  was  the  substitution  of  "  hydraulic 
bellows  "  for  the  primitive  air  bellows  of  the  first  machines. 

The  origin  of  the  gasometer  of  the  aerating  plant  of  to-day 
has  been  attributed,  though  incorrectly,  to  an  invention  of 
James  Watt,  who  devised  "  hydraulic  bellows  "  for  the  collec- 
tion of  the  various  "  airs,"  then  being  advocated  as  a  remedy 
for  most  diseases. 

Writing  from  Heathfield  to  his  friend,  Dr.  Thomas  Beddoes 
of  Bristol,  in  June,  1794,  Watt  observes  :— 

Having  never  made  the  art  of  medicine  my  particular  study,  I 
should  not  have  troubled  you  with  my  crude  ideas  on  the  use  of 
pneumatic  medicines,  if  your  approbation  of  what  I  mentioned  to 
you,  joined  to  my  earnest  desire  to  aid  your  endeavours  with  the 
hope  that  possibly  some  idea  might  be  started,  which  may  save 
other  parents  from  the  sorrow  that  has  unfortunately  fallen  to  my 
lot,1  had  not  urged  me  to  step  over  the  bounds  of  my  profession. 

It  appears  to  me  that  if  it  be  allowed  that  poisons  can  be  carried 
into  the  system  of  the  lungs,  remedies  may  also  be  thrown  in  by 
the  same  channel. 

As  fixed  air  is  a  saturated  solution  of  charcoal  in  oxygen e  air,  is 
it  not  probable  that  the  lungs  can  decompose  it  ?  We  should  there- 
fore only  look  to  its  effects  as  an  antiseptic. 

The  species  [of  fixed  air]  I  would  recommend  is  that  from 
fermentation,  and  the  means  keeping  a  vessel  of  fermenting  wort 
close  to  the  patient,  which  will  in  general  be  grateful  to  him. 

1  His  daughter  had  recently  died  of  consumption. 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     1)7 


A  month  later  Watt  writes  to  Beddoes  that  he  is  forwarding 
drawings  of  his  apparatus  for  "  producing  and  receiving  the 
various  airs  which  may  be 
supposed  to  be  useful  in 
medicine." 

These  letters  and  draw- 
ings, together  with  numer- 
ous accounts  of  cures 
effected  by  means  of  "airs," 
are  published  in  a  pam- 
phlet, of  which  the  first  (or 
medicinal)  part  was  written 
by  Beddoes  and  the  second 
(or  mechanical)  part  by 
Watt.1 

That  part  of  the  appa- 
ratus intended  for  the  col- 
lection of  fixed  air  and 
other  gases  was  termed  the 
Hydraulic  Bellows,  and  is 
shown  in  the  accompanying 
figure  (Fig.  32). 

It  consisted  of  an  outer 
vessel,  H,  and  an  inner 
movable  vessel,  J,  which 
was  suspended  by  a  cord 
passing  over  two  pulleys, 
and  bearing  a  counter 
weight,  L. 

The  outer  vessel  was 
made  double  to  obviate  the 
use  of  much  water,  and  a 
space  of  about  2  inches  was 

left  for  the  inner  vessel,  J,  to  move  up  and  down,  while  a 
channel  in  the  rim,  W,  prevented  the  water  from  overflowing. 

1  "  Considerations  on  the  Medicinal  Use  of  Factitious  Air  and  on  the  Production 
of  Factitious  Air."  Part  L,  by  Thomas  Beddoes,  M.D.  Part  II.,  by  James  Watt. 
London,  1795. 

M.W.  H 


98  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

The  "  air,"  which  in  the  case  of  carbon  dioxide  was  obtained 
by  igniting  chalk,  entered  the  bellows  through  the  pipe,  P,  and 
passed  upwards  through  the  vertical  pipe,  V,  causing  the  inner 
vessel,  J,  to  rise  until  it  was  stopped  by  the  cross-piece  at  the 
top. 

When  it  was  required  to  fill  a  gas  bag  or  gas  holder  the  gas 
was  forced  out  through  the  discharge  pipe,  Q,  by  lifting  the 
weight,  L,  and  allowing  the  inner  vessel  to  descend  by  its  own 
weight. 

The  apparatus  was  made  of  japanned  tin-plate  or  iron,  and 
in  two  sizes,  the  larger  (12  inches  in  diameter)  holding  about 
a  cubic  foot  of  air,  and  the  smaller  (8J  inches  in  diameter) 
holding  about  a  third  of  the  quantity. 

In  order  to  wash  gases  when  prepared  with  acids  they  were 
made  to  pass  through  a  vessel  of  water  on  their  way  to  the 
hydraulic  bellows,  the  contents  of  this  being  meanwhile  stirred 
by  means  of  an  inverted  T-shaped  agitator,  which  was  turned 
by  a  small  winch  at  the  end  of  its  stem. 

Lavoisier's  Gasometer.— There  can  be  no  question,  however, 
that  the  credit  of  the  invention  of  the  gasometer  itself,  if  not 
its  application  to  the  manufacture  of  mineral  waters,  belongs 
to  Lavoisier,  who  published  the  account  of  his  invention  five 
years  before  Watt  invented  the  hydraulic  bellows.1 

Lavoisier's  apparatus  (see  Fig.  33)  was,  as  its  name  denotes, 
primarily  intended  for  the  measurement  of  gases,  but  had  the 
further  object  of  enabling  a  continual  and  uniform  supply  of 
the  gas  to  be  directed  wherever  required. 

The  bell  of  the  gasometer  was  made  of  hammered  copper, 
18  inches  in  diameter  and  20  inches  in  depth,  and  it  had  an 
external  ridge  with  compartments  in  which  leaden  weights 
were  placed  when  pressure  to  expel  the  gas  was  needed. 

This  bell  was  inverted  in  a  vessel  of  water,  and  was  attached 
at  the  top  to  one  end  of  a  curved  beam,  having  at  each  end  a 

1  "  Traite  Elementaire  de  Chimie,"  by  A.  Lavoisier,  Paris,  1789,  Vol.  II.,  p.  346  : — 
"  Je  donne  le  nom  de  Gazometre  a  un  instrument  dont  j'ai  en  la  premiere  idee, 
et  que  j'avois  fait  executer  dans  la  vue  de  former  un  soufflet  que  put  fournir  con- 
tinuellment  et  uniformement  un  courant  de  gaz  oxygene  pour  d'experience  de 
fusion." 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     99 

segment  of  a  circle  of  iron.  The  beam  rested  upon  large  mov- 
able brass  wheels,  the  axes  of  which  ran  on  rock  crystal  to  reduce 
the  friction. 


FIG.  33. — Lavoisier's  Gasometer.     1789. 

The  other  end  of  the  beam  carried  a  pan,  in  which  weights 
could  be  placed  when  the  pressure  within  the  bell  was  to  be 

H2 


100 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


reduced  and  the  bell  was  to  be  raised.  This  was  equivalent 
to  the  counter  weight  of  Watt's  hydraulic  bellows.  By  reduc- 
ing the  weight  in  the  pan,  the  bell  would  sink  and  expel  the 
gas,  and,  as  was  mentioned  above,  the  pressure  could  be  still 
further  increased  by  putting  weights  upon  the  bell. 

A  thermometer  passed  through  an  opening  in  the  top  of  the 
bell,  and  the  volume  of  the  gas  could  be  measured  upon  a  scale 
by  means  of  an  indicator  at  the  top. 


FIG.  34. — Lavoisier's  Pump.     1774. 

It  was  not  long  before  Watt's  hydraulic  bellows,  which  soon 
became  known  as  "  gasometers  "  (after  Lavoisier's  invention), 
became  generally  adopted  as  an  essential  part  of  most  mineral 
water  carbonating  machines,  although,  as  was  mentioned 
above  (p.  95),  the  old  air-bellows  type  of  apparatus  still 
continued  to  be  used  in  the  smaller  factories. 

Another  improvement  added  to  in  the  early  manufacturing 
plants  was  a  washing  bottle  between  the  generator  and  the 


EAHLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     101 


carbonating  vessel,  its  object  being  to  remove  traces  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  other  impurities  from  the  gas  before  it  came 
in  contact  with  the  liquid  that  was  to  be  impregnated. 
The  adoption  of  this  device  is  usually  attributed  to  the 
French  chemist,  Macquer. 

Early  Pumps.— The 

use  of  a  force-pump  for 
impregnating  water 
with  fixed  air  under 
pressure  had  been  sug- 
gested by  Priestley 
(see  p.  87),  and  a 
type  of  pump  suitable 
for  the  purpose  had 
been  devised  and  de- 
scribed by  Lavoisier 
shortly  afterwards.1 

The  application  of 
such  a  pump  (Fig.  34) 
to  the  plant  for 
making  aerated  water 
was  rendered  more 
practicable  when  a 
gasometer  was  also 
employed,  although  in 
France  it  was  exten- 
sively used  on  a  limited 
scale  with  small  appa- 
ratus  by  the  pharma-  Blanche's  Compressor.  1811. 

cists,  in  whose  hands  the  manufacture  of  aerated  mineral 
waters  remained  as  a  monopoly. 

Bouillon-Lagrange,  writing  in  1811  on  the  subject,'2  gives 
a  description  of  Planche's  compressor  (Fig.  35),  by  means  of 
which  a  liquid  could  be  charged  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours 
with  four  to  five  times  its  volume  of  carbon  dioxide. 


1  "  Opuscules  Physiques  et  Chymiques,"  Paris,  1794. 

2  "  Essai  sur  les  Eaux  Naturolles  et  Artificielles,"  Paris,  1811. 


102 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


The  vessel,  A,  was  filled  with  water,  and  about  an  eighth  of 
the  quantity  then  run  out,  and  the  space  filled  with  carbon 
dioxide  from  the  bladder  or  flask  affixed  to  the  side  tube  of 
the  pump.  At  the  bottom  of  A,  which  was  made  of  polished 
copper  tinned  inside,  was  a  perforated  false  bottom,  with  a 
central  opening  for  the  pipe,  E,  the  object  of  the  perforations 
being  to  assist  in  the  distribution  of  the  gas.  After  being 

impregnated  with  the 
gas  under  pressure,  the 
liquid  could  be  drawn 
off  through  the  tap  at 
the  base. 

Planche,  who  was  a 
pharmacist  in  Paris, 
also  devised  an  appa- 
ratus for  the  prepara- 
tion of  small  quantities 
of  Eau  de  Seltz,  in 
which  the  gas  was 
forced  into  the  liquid 
by  its  own  pressure, 
and  the  process  of  im- 
pregnation was  accele- 
rated by  a  wooden 
agitator  of  the  type  of 
that  of  the  Due  de 
Chaulnes  (see  Fig.  36). 
This  was  worked  up 
and  down,  and  loss  of 


FIG.  36. — Plane-he's  Apparatus  with  Wooden 
Agitator. 


gas  was  prevented  by  enclosing  the  neck  of  the  vessel  through 
which  it  passed  within  a  bladder. 

From  the  veiled  description  given  in  17991  by  the  French 
Committee  that  reported  upon  the  artificial  mineral  water 
establishments  of  Nicholas  Paul  in  Geneva  and  Paris  (see  p.  76), 
it  would  seem  that  Paul's  carbonating  plant  probably  included 
a  gasometer  and  a  force  pump.  "  The  gases,"  it  is  stated, 

1  "  Rapport  sur  les  Eaux  Mineral  Artificielles  du  Cit.  Paul,  etc.,  par  le  Cit. 
Fourcroy."  Annales  de  Chimie,  An.  VIIL,  XXXIIL,  p.  125. 


EMILY   FOBMS   OF   CABBONATING   APPAKATUS     103 

"  are  conveyed  through  purifiers  into  strong  closed  casks, 
where  they  meet  with  filtered  water,  and  are  dissolved  by  joint 
assistance  of  agitation  and  pressure.  The  gas,  whether 
produced  by  heat  or  effervescence,  is  drawn  out  by  the  same 
pump  and  conveyed  into  the  same  casks. 

'  The  saline  and  other  fixed  matters  are  put,  in  due  quantities 
well  mixed  and  powdered,  into  each  bottle  before  it  is  filled 
with  gaseous  water  drawn  immediately  from  the  cask. 

'  The  hissing  noise  and  bursting  of  the  bottles  occasionally 
at  the  moment  they  are  corked  convinces  the  spectator  that 
the  water  is  supersaturated  with  gas." 

The  gas  was  prepared  either  from  chalk  and  sulphuric  acid, 
or  by  decomposing  chalk  alone  by  heat. 

Exact  details  of  the  machinery  employed  are  not  given,  for 
'"  the  Inventor  reserves  to  himself  the  complete  knowledge 
of  the  apparatus  used  to  compress  the  gas." 

By  way  of  criticism  the  Committee  remarks  that  the 
machinery  did  not  compress  into  the  water  as  much  as  six 
times  the  volume  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  that  the  impreg- 
nated waters  suffered  constant  and  successive  losses  of  gas 
during  the  corking,  storing,  and  uncorking  of  the  bottles. 

In  the  preface  to  his  pamphlet,  Paul  observes  that  for  many 
years  previously  he  had  used  glass  bottles  instead  of  those 
of  earthenware,  which  he  had  found  too  porous. 

The  Geneva  Process. — This  method  of  carbonating  by  com- 
pression of  the  gas  with  the  aid  of  a  force  pump  into  water 
contained  in  a  cask  became  known  as  the  "Geneva  process," 
from  the  fact  of  its  having  been  first  introduced  on  a  manu- 
facturing scale  by  Paul  in  Geneva,  about  the  year  1790. 

The  same  firm  started  a  branch  business  in  London  in  1802, 
and  other  mineral  water  factories  using  the  same  type  of 
machinery  were  established  about  the  same  time,  both  in 
England  and  various  European  countries. 

Shortly  before  the  establishment  of  Paul's  factory  in  London, 
the  manufacture  of  aerated  mineral  waters  was  started  by 
A.  R.  Thwaites  &  Co.  in  Dublin  and  in  the  year  1799  that 
firm  was  selling  "  soda  water  of  single  and  double  strength," 


104      MINERAL  AND  AEEATED  WATERS 

Their  method  of  manufacture  was  kept  strictly  secret,  but 
the  machinery  was  probably  very  similar  to  that  employed  by 
Paul. 

In  a  pamphlet  published  in  1869  by  J.  Briggs,  manager  to 
Messrs.  Hay  ward-Tyler  &  Co.,  it  is  stated  that  the  first  machine 
used  in  the  Dublin  factory  was  made  of  wood,  while  strong 
glass  bottles  were  used  for  generating  the  gas.  Subsequently 
cisterns  excavated  from  large  blocks  of  granite  took  the  place 
of  the  wooden  aerating  vessel. 


FIG.  37. — Old  English  Wooden  Carbonating  Cylinder. 

Early  in  the  last  century  William  Russell  began  to  manu- 
facture machinery  for  the  preparation  of  soda  water,  and  after 
his  death,  in  1835,  the  business  was  acquired  by  the  present 
firm  of  Hay  ward-Tyler  &  Co.,  who  may  thus  claim  to  be  the 
earliest  makers  of  mineral  water  plant  in  this  country. 

The  machinery  first  made  by  them  was  constructed  on  the 
"  Geneva  system,"  and  was  worked  upon  the  principle  already 
described,  of  saturating  a  given  quantity  of  liquid  with  gas  by 
means  of  a  force  pump. 

The  illustration  (Fig.  37)  represents  the  carbonating  cylinder 


EARLY   FOKMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     105 

of  the  old  type  of  English  machines  as  made  by  Hayward- 
Tyler  &  Co.  in  1835.  It  was  constructed  of  oak  2J  to  3  inches 
thick,  strongly  bound  with  iron  hoops,  and  having  ends  of 
plate-iron  secured  with  bolts  and  nuts.  It  contained  a  hori- 
zontal shaft  supported  in  the  iron  end,  and  carrying  stirring 
blades  which  were  made  to  revolve  by  a  band  passing  over  the 
end  wheel.  This  was  connected  with  a  steam  engine,  or  in 
other  cases  was  worked  by  hand.  The  pressure  of  the  gas 
within  the  cylinder  was  recorded  on  the  pressure  gauge,  while 
a  safety-valve  was  provided  at  the  top.  Air  was  first  pumped 
out,  so  as  to  create  a  partial  vacuum,  and  on  opening  the  cock 
in  the  pipe  connected  with  the  supply  tank,  the  solution 
containing  the  weighed  quantity  of  soda  rushed  in.  The  gas 
was  then  forced  in  by  the  pump,  the  contents  stirred  with  the 
agitator,  and  the  "  batch  "  drawn  off  into  bottles. 

The  generator  for  the  production  of  the  carbon  dioxide,  the 
gasometer,  and  the  force  pump  are  not  shown  in  the  illustration. 

According  to  J.  Briggs,  whose  pamphlet  has  already  been 
quoted,  the  output  of  soda  water  from  one  of  these  early 
machines  with  a  single  bottler  was  from  60  to  80  dozen  bottles 
per  day,  though  the  quantity  could  be  increased  by  having 
two  bottlers  to  a  machine. 

In  the  modern  types  of  machines  plant  worked  by  a  single 
pump  will  yield  from  300  to  700  dozen  bottles  per  day,  according 
to  the  degree  of  power  applied. 

The  pressure  within  the  cylinder  of  the  early  machines 
could  be  kept  fairly  constant  by  pumping  in  more  gas  during 
the  process  of  bottling,  but  the  objection  to  this  course  was  the 
accumulation  of  a  large  amount  of  gas  which  would  be  left 
after  all  the  liquid  had  been  withdrawn. 

Before  the  cylinder  could  be  re-charged  this  gas  had  to  be 
expelled,  and  was  either  allowed  to  escape  into  the  air  or  was 
returned  to  the  gas-holder.  The  former  course  involved  waste, 
while  in  the  latter  the  gas  usually  became  mixed  with  more  or 
less  air. 

To  prevent  this  loss  some  manufacturers  pumped  air  into 
the  cylinder  during  the  bottling,  but  soda  water  bottled  under 
those  conditions  was  pretty  sure  to  contain  air  as  well  as  carbon 


106 


MINEKAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


dioxide,  and  the  contents  of  the  bottle  would  then  rush 
violently  from  the  bottle  when  opened,  and  would  become  flat 
almost  immediately  on  standing. 

The  principle  involved  in  this  early  apparatus  is  found  in 

plant  still  used  to  a  small 
extent  in  mineral  water 
factories  at  the  present 
day,  especially  where  a 
small  quantity  of  a  liquid 
such  as  cider  is  to  be 
carbonated. 

The  arrangement  of 
plant  including  these 
machines  will  be  seen  by 
reference  to  the  accom- 
panying figure  (Fig.  38), 
which  represents 
a  German  carbonating 
apparatus  of  the  early 
part  of  last  century. 

The  small  vessel,  A,  at 
the  top  was  charged  with 
sulphuric  acid,  the  flow 
of  which  into  the  genera  • 
tor,  B,  below  was  regu- 
lated by  the  handle. 

Lumps  of  chalk  and 
some  water  were  placed 
in  the  generator,  which 
was  provided  with  an 
agitator,  worked  by  the 
handle  outside,  for 
mixing  the  contents. 

The  carbon  dioxide 
passed  through  washing  bottles,  C,  to  remove  particles  of  acid 
mechanically  carried  over  with  the  gas,  and  then  into  the 
gasometer,  D,  whence  it  was  drawn  by  means  of  the  pump,  F,  and 
forced  under  pressure  into  the  closed  carbonating  cylinder,  E. 


EARLY  FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     107 


The  pipe  at  the  top  of  this  apparatus  must  have  turned 
downwards      and      have 
formed  a  connection  with 
the  bottom  of  the  pump 
on  the  left  side. 

The  impregnation  of 
the  liquid  in  the  cylinder 
by  the  gas  was  acceler- 
ated by  the  movement  of 
agitating  blades  fixed  to 
a  horizontal  shaft,  which 
was  made  to  revolve  by 
applying  power  to  the 
wheel  outside  at  the  end 
of  the  cylinder. 

The  gas  pumps  of  these 
earlier  machines  were 
open  at  the  top,  and 
had  pistons  packed  with 
leather.  The  gas  was 
drawn  into  the  barrel  by 
an  up  stroke  of  the  piston, 
and  forced  out  by  a  down 
stroke,  just  as  in  the  case 
of  an  ordinary  water 
pump. 

Hence  leakages  of  gas 
were  very  liable  to  occur 
when  the  leather  of  the 
piston  became  at  all 
worn,  and  apart  from  the 
wastage  involved,  it  then 
became  difficult  to  obtain 
the  necessary  pressure 
within  the  cylinder. 

Struve's  Apparatus.— 

A  modification  of  this  type  of  apparatus  was  patented  in  1823 


108  MINERAL   AND   AERATED    WATERS 

by  Swaine  acting  on  behalf  of  Struve  (English  Patent,  4,851  of 
1823).  This  is  of  interest  both  from  the  ingenious  way  in 
which  its  various  parts  are  combined,  and  from  the  fact  that 
it  was  the  apparatus  used  by  Struve  in  manufacturing  his 
artificial  mineral  waters  at  his  "  spas  "  in  Brighton,  Germany, 
and  Russia. 

The  pump  and  "preparing  vessel,"  A,  are  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying diagram  (Fig.  39).  The  pump,  B,  which  was  capable 
of  acting  both  as  a  suction  and  compressing  pump,  drew  the 
carbon  dioxide  from  a  gas-holder.  D,  through  a  measuring 
meter,  C,  delivering  into  the  pipe,  </',  and  forced  it  under  pressure 
into  the  preparing  vessel  through  the  pipe,  m.  The  piston  of  the 
pump,  b' ',  was  connected  with  the  wheel,  d',  which  was  put  in 
motion  by  the  large  fly-wheel  that  was  worked  either  by  hand, 
or,  at  a  later  period,  by  steam  power.  The  barrel  of  the  pump 
was  enclosed  in  a  cylinder  of  water,  //,  so  that  any  escape  of 
gas  could  be  readily  detected,  while  a  chamber,  I',  was  provided 
for  condensing  any  vapour  from  the  pump,  and  a  chamber,  n', 
containing  distilled  water  for  moistening  and  cooling  the 
leather  packings  of  the  piston. 

Above  the  preparing  vessel  were  two  receivers  K,  k,  made  of 
tin  or  other  metal,  which  were  intended  to  hold  the  concen- 
trated solutions  of  salts  to  be  introduced  in  regulated  quantities 
into  the  vessel  of  water  beneath,  the  supply  being  regulated  by 
means  of  the  stop  cocks,  o,  o. 

The  preparing  vessel,  A,  was  surrounded  by  a  cistern  of 
water,  q,  q,  for  cooling  purposes,  and  was  provided  with  a 
manual  agitator  a,  6,  c,  to  accelerate  the  impregnation  of  the 
liquid  by  the  gas. 

When  the  required  degree  of  pressure  was  indicated  upon 
the  pressure  gauge,  H,  the  aerated  liquid  was  drawn  off  through 
the  tap,  /,  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  and  entered  the  bottle, 
which  had  previously  been  brought  into  position  by  pressing 
the  treadle  h,  and  so  raising  the  platform,  g.  As  soon  as  the 
pressure  within  the  bottle  was  equal  to  that  in  the  vessel,  A, 
a  small  air-vent,  i,  in  the  side  of  the  cock,  e,  was  opened. 
This  let  a  small  quantity  of  air  escape,  and  allowed  the 
filling  of  the  bottle  to  be  completed,  immediately  after 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     109 

which  the  cork  was  introduced,  and  secured  by  a  wire  or  a 
string. 

The  other  parts  of  the  apparatus,  not  shown  in  the  diagram, 
included  an  ordinary  carbon  dioxide  generator,  purifying 
vessels  containing  a  solution  of  a  barium  salt  to  absorb  any 
particles  of  sulphuric  acid  carried  forward  with  the  gas,  and  a 
gas-holder  or  gasometer  of  the  usual  type. 


FIG.  40. — Double  Cylinder  Carbonating  Machine. 

An  illustration,  in  which  this  plant  is  shown  in  working 
order  in  Struve's  main  establishment  in  Dresden  in  1853,  is 
given  on  p.  80. 

Apart  from  the  gradual  diminution  of  pressure  during 
bottling,  the  drawback  of  all  forms  of  apparatus  working  upon 
the  "  Geneva  system  "  is  that  the  process  of  bottling  must  be 
interrupted  in  order  to  re-charge  the  cylinder  with  a  fresh 
quantity  of  liquid. 

Various  attempts  were  made  to  remedy  this  defect.     Thus, 


110      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

in  1821,  an  apparatus  was  devised  by  Laville-Delaplagne,  in 
which  the  carbon  dioxide  was  stored  in  two  gas-holders, 
communicating  with  a  double  pump,  while  the  liquid  to  be 
aerated  was  placed  in  two  wooden  barrels  containing  agitators. 
The  gas  could  be  pumped  into  either  of  these  at  will,  so  that 
while  one  was  being  drawn  from  for  bottling,  the  other  was 
being  aerated. 

An  early  machine  on  this  principle,  made  by  Hayward- 
Tyler  &  Co.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  40.  The  cylinders  here  were  put 
side  by  side,  with  the  pump  below  working  between  them, 
while  the  agitators  were  set  in  motion  by  cords  from  a  wheel 
in  common. 

Saturation  by  Chemical  Pressure.— In  1824  Cameron  con- 
structed an  apparatus  in  which  the  saturation  of  the  liquid 
was  effected  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas  itself  upon  a  larger 
scale.  In  other  words,  it  was  a  reversion  to  eighteenth  century 
apparatus. 

The  generator  was  made  of  iron  lined  with  steel,  and  contained 
an  agitator  also  covered  with  lead  for  stirring  the  chalk  and 
sulphuric  acid.  The  gas  was  conducted  into  a  lead-lined  iron 
vessel  with  very  thick  walls  in  which  it  was  washed,  and  thence 
passed  into  the  saturator,  which  was  of  ovoid  form,  and  was 
provided  with  a  vertical  agitator  with  three  superposed 
blades.  This  vessel  was  made  of  copper  or  iron,  tinned  inside, 
and  the  pressure  was  indicated  upon  a  mercury  manometer. 

An  apparatus  upon  the  same  principle  was  brought  out  in 
France  in  1830  by  Barruel,  with  the  difference  that  his 
saturator  was  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  which  could  be  rotated 
upon  an  axis. 

The  difficulty  of  controlling  the  pressure  of  the  gas  evolved 
from  the  generator  rendered  both  of  these  apparatus,  in  which 
the  gasometer  was  omitted,  dangerous  to  use. 

Bakewell's  Apparatus. — In  the  year  1832  F.  C.  Bakewell 
took  out  a  patent  (English  Patent,  No.  6,238)  for  a  carbonating 
machine,  which  is  interesting  from  its  ingenious  construction 
and  from  being  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  in  this  country 


KAKLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     111 


to  bring  the  carboiiating  cylinder  and  the  generator  together 
in  one  compact  piece  of  apparatus. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  diagram  in  Fig.  41,  which  represents 
a  side  section  of  this  machine,  Bakewell's  invention  consisted 
essentially  of  a  strong  cylindrical  vessel  of  iron,  divided  into 
two  compartments  by  a  partition  about  two-thirds  of  the  height 
from  the  bottom.  The  lower  chamber  was  intended  to  serve 
as  the  generator,  and  was  preferably  lined  with  lead  or  earthen- 
ware to  protect  it  from  the  action  of  the  acid,  while  the  upper 
chamber  served  as  the  carbonating 
vessel.  The  whole  cylinder  was 
supported  by  pinions  resting  upon 
standards  at  the  side,  so  that  it  could 
be  turned  or  made  to  vibrate  at  will. 

In  making  soda  water  the  machine 
was  turned  so  that  the  opening,  b,  was 
uppermost.  Chalk  and  water  were 
introduced  through  the  opening,  c, 
which  was  then  screwed  down,  after 
which  the  acid  was  poured  through  a 
funnel  placed  in  b,  in  the  acid  chamber, 
n,  whence  it  could  only  reach  the  chalk 
through  the  opening;  p. 

The  cap  having  been  screwed  down 
on  to  the  opening,  6,  the  machine  was 
turned  to  a  vertical  position,  and  the 
water  to  be  carbonated  was  poured 
into  the  upper  compartment  through 
the  opening,  a,  upon  which  a  cap  was  also  screwed. 

Upon  now  causing  the  cylinder  to  vibrate  upon  its  pinions, 
a  little  of  the  acid  passed  through  the  opening,  p,  and  acted 
upon  the  chalk.  The  gas  evolved  could  only  escape  through 
the  opening,/,  and  passing  through  the  tube,  g,  and  thence  into 
the  tube,  i,  where  it  was  washed,  escaped  through  the  per- 
forations, ra,  at  the  end  of  the  tube,  Z,  into  the  water  to  be 
impregnated. 

The  stirring  of  the  chalk  during  the  gradual  introduction 
of  the  acid  was  effected  by  means  of  a  pendulum  agitator,  v, 


FIG.  41. — Bakewell's 
Apparatus.     1832. 


112      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

which  was  suspended  at  two  points  from  the  top  of  the  lower 
compartment,  and  was  made  to  vibrate  when  the  machine 
was  rocked  on  the  pinions,  which  are  not  shown  in  the  diagram. 
Shelves  or  baffles,  s,  s  and  t,  were  provided  to  bring  the  gas  into 
contact  with  the  water  and  promote  the  washing  and  subse- 
quent impregnation,  while  the  carbonated  liquid  was  drawn 
off  through  the  tap  at  the  side. 

The  size  of  the  cylinder  described  in  the  patent  was  18 
inches  in  height  and  about  8  inches  in  diameter,  while  the 
internal  washing  tube,  i,  was  about  2  inches  in  diameter  at  its 
widest  end. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  no  safety-valve  or  other  means  of 
guarding  against  excessive  pressure  from  a  sudden  evolution 
of  gas  was  provided,  and  the  risk  of  explosion  with  this  machine 
must  have  been  very  considerable. 

Savaresse's  Apparatus. — In  1837  Savaresse  devised  an 
improvement  upon  the  apparatus  of  Barruel,  in  which  he 
regulated  the  production  of  gas  in  such  a  way  that  the  quantity 
to  be  evolved  was  determined  beforehand,  and  so  fixed  that  its 
force  should  not  be  greater  than  the  strength  of  the  walls  of 
the  apparatus.  In  this  way  he  claimed  that  all  risk  of  explosion 
was  prevented. 

The  carbon  dioxide  was  generated  in  the  usual  leaden 
vessel,  provided  with  an  agitator,  from  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and 
chalk,  the  latter  being  introduced  in  paper  cartridges  as  required. 

The  gas  produced  was  made  to  pass  through  two  purifying 
vessels,  the  second  of  which  was  provided  with  a  manometer  to 
indicate  the  pressure,  and  then  into  an  oscillating  cylinder, 
the  axis  of  which  was  made  hollow  to  receive  the  conducting 

Pipe- 
Here  the  water  or  other  liquid  was  rapidly  impregnated,  and 

was  thence  drawn  off  into  bottles  by  means  of  a  special  bottling 
machine  (see  p.  149). 

Subsequently,  in  1838,  Savaresse  improved  upon  this  machine 
by  using  two  cylinders,  one  of  which  was  charged  with  the 
gas,  while  the  other  was  being  drawn  off  into  bottles,  and  he 
thus  made  the  process  more  continuous. 


EARLY  FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     113 

This  latter  apparatus  was  also  patented  in  this  country  by 
an  agent,  Miles  Berry  (English  Patent,  No.  7,899  of  1838),  and 
its  construction  was  illustrated  by  the  accompanying  diagram 
(Fig.  42). 

Here  b  represents  the  generator,  a  hollow  globular  vessel,  to 
the  upper  part  of  which  was  secured  a  conical  tube,  c,  of 
copper  lined  with  tin. 


FIG.  42. — Savaresse's  Carbonating  Machine.     1838. 

The  cartridges  containing  the  charges  of  calcium  carbonate 
were  introduced  into  the  top  of  this  tube,  and  could  be  admitted 
one  by  one,  as  required,  into  the  generator  by  withdrawing  the 
sliding  shutter,  /.  The  top  of  the  tube,  c,  was  closed  by  a  plug 
with  a  leather  collar,  which  was  screwed  down  by  turning  the 
handle,  e. 

The  gas  was  washed  by  bubbling  through  water  contained  in 
M.W.  i 


114  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

the  vessel,  i,  from  the  upper  part  of  which  it  passed  into  the 
two  oscillating  cylinders,  1,1,  which  had  previously  been  charged 
with  the  liquid  to  be  impregnated. 

The  bottling  machine  and  the  method  of  filling  syphons 
by  its  means  are  described  elsewhere  (p.  149,  167). 

Ozouf  s  Apparatus. — A  few  years  later  an  intermittent 
apparatus  of  the  same  type  as  those  of  Savaresse  was  devised 
by  Ozouf  in  France.  It  consisted  of  a  spherical  saturator  made 
of  copper  lined  with  lead,  and  was  provided  with  an  internal 
agitator,  a  manometer,  and  a  safety-valve.  This  vessel  was 
charged  with  the  water  or-  mineral  salt  solution,  and  was 
connected  with  the  gas  generator,  which  was  in  the  form  of  a 
copper  cylinder  lined  with  lead.  Within  the  cylinder  were 
contained  the  vessel  for  the  sulphuric  acid  and  a  washing 
chamber,  and  the  whole  apparatus  was  mounted  on  a  compact 
stand. 

The  objections  to  the  use  of  this  machine  were  that  the 
gas  received  insufficient  washing,  and  conveyed  impurities  to 
the  water  in  the  sphere,  and  that,  as  in  other  plant  constructed 
on  the  same  principle,  the  risk  of  explosion  from  a  too  sudden 
evolution  of  gas  had  not  been  altogether  eliminated. 

Mention  may  also  be  made  here  of  a  machine  devised  in 
1861  by  Franyois,  since  it  combined  many  of  the  features  of 
the  machines  of  Savaresse  and  Ozouf.  It  had  a  vertical  washing 
chamber  inside  the  generating  cylinder,  and  all  its  separate 
parts  were  mounted  so  as  to  form  a  single  apparatus  that 
occupied  a  small  space  and  was  easily  worked.  It  did  not, 
however,  completely  overcome  the  drawbacks  of  the  machines 
that  it  succeeded. 

The  Mondollot  System — The  various  attempts  made  in 
France  to  simplify  the  machinery  by  omission  of  the  gasometer 
without  incurring  risk  of  explosion  culminated  in  Mondollot's 
system  of  carbonating. 

In  its  main  essentials  this  system  differs  only  from  the 
ordinary  continuous  process  of  carbonating  in  its  mode  of 
generating  the  gas.  The  supply  of  acid  to  the  generator  is 


EARLY  FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     115 


dependent  upon  the  amount  of  gas  drawn  off  by  the  pump,  so 
that  acid  is  only  introduced  when  required  for  the  decompo- 
sition of  more  chalk  or  sodium  carbonate.  To  prevent  still 
further  the  risk  of  explosion  a  safety  water-  valve,  in  the  form 
of  a  U-tube,  is  affixed  to  the  top  of  the  generator,  so  that  any 
excess  of  pressure  within  the  apparatus  is  at  once  indicated  by 
the  water  being  expelled  from  this  tube  and  leaving  a  clear 
passage  for  the  gas. 

The  gas  withdrawn  by  the  pump  from  the  cylinder  passes 
through  a  small  washing  vessel  containing  water,  and  is  forced, 
together  with  the  water 
to  be  carbonated,  into  a 
spherical  condenser,  where 
the  impregnation  is  pro- 
moted by  the  action  of  an 
agitator. 

When  the  gas  is  thus 
withdrawn  from  the  cylin- 
der through  the  pipe,  B 
(Fig.  43),  at  each  stroke 
of  the  pump,  the  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  in  the  outer 
chamber  of  the  generator 
passes  through  the  holes, 
a,  and  rising  into  the 
tube,  t,  and  traversing  the 
perforations  comes  into 
contact  with  the  chalk  or 


aM^dollot  A 


sodium  carbonate  in  the  inner  chamber.  Carbon  dioxide  is 
immediately  produced,  and  thereby  a  backward  pressure  is 
created,  which  drives  the  acid  down  again  through  the  tube,  t, 
and  the  evolution  of  gas  stops,  until,  upon  the  next  stroke  of 
the  pump,  the  back  pressure  is  again  removed  and  the  acid 
once  more  comes  into  contact  with  the  carbonate.  This 
process  will  continue,  with  alternate  evolution  and  stoppage 
of  the  gas,  until  the  whole  of  the  materials  are  spent. 

After  impregnation  of  the  liquid  in  the  saturating  condenser, 
bottling  is  done  by  any  kind  of  bottling  machine. 

i  2 


116  MINEEAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

This  French  system  presents  many  points  of  analogy  with 
the  more  recent  Riley  system  described  on  p.  139  ;  but  in  the 
case  of  the  latter  not  only  is  the  gasometer  omitted,  but  the 
saturation  is  also  effected  without  the  use  of  any  agitator. 

Other  Intermittent  Apparatus. — The  loss  of  gas  after  bottling 
with  intermittent  machines  was  met  to  some  extent  by  the 
invention  of  apparatus  having  two  stationary  cylinders,  each 
provided  with  an  agitator. 

Machines  of  this  type  were  made  by  Vernaut  and  by  Berjot, 
and  were  intended  more  especially  for  the  manufacture  of 
mineral  waters  by  pharmaceutical  chemists. 

The  cylinders  communicated,  so  that  when  one  had  been 
drawn  down,  leaving  only  an  atmosphere  of  gas,  it  could  be 
connected  with  the  other  cylinder,  and  sufficient  water  drawn 
from  the  latter  to  absorb  this  residual  gas,  and  equalise  the 
pressure  within  the  two  cylinders.  The  cock  of  the  communi- 
cating pipe  was  then  closed,  and  the  saturation  of  the  water 
completed  with  gas  direct  from  the  generator.  By  this  means 
the  loss  of  gas  was  reduced  to  about  half  the  quantity  of  that 
inevitable  when  only  one  cylinder  was  used. 

In  neither  of  these  double-cylinder  machines,  however,  was 
the  drawback  of  irregularity  of  pressure  inherent  in  this  type 
of  machine  overcome.  Thus  bottling  would  begin  at  a  pressure 
of  about  eight  atmospheres,  and  would  steadily  fall  until,  finally, 
when  the  cylinder  was  nearly  empty,  the  pressure  would  have 
been  reduced  to  about  five  or  six  atmospheres. 

The  Continuous  Process.-  In  the  invention  of  William 
Hamilton,  which  was  secured  by  two  patents  (English  Patents, 
No.  3,232  of  1809,  and  3,819  of  1814),  we  have  the  beginning 
of  the  continuous  process  of  aeration — a  process  that  has  now 
been  almost  universally  adopted. 

Hamilton's  apparatus,  according  to  the  description  given 
in  his  later  patent,  was  based  on  the  principle  of  forcing  a 
measured  quantity  of  the  liquid  and  of  the  gas  simultaneously 
into  a  small  condenser,  whence  after  impregnation  had  taken 
place  under  regulated  pressure,  the  aerated  product  was  drawn 


EARLY  FOBMS   OF   CABBONATING   APPARATUS     117 

off  and  bottled.     The  supply  of  both  liquid  and  gas  could  be 
maintained  without  interruption,  and  the  process  was  thus 


Horizontal  Plan  of 
Valves.HandL. 


FIG.  44. — Hamilton's  Continuous  Process  Machine.    1814. 

both  more  rapid  and  less  wasteful  than  in  the  case  of  the  old 
cylinder  machines. 

The  construction  of  the  machine  is  shown  in  the  accom- 


118     MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

panying  diagram  (Fig.  41),  which  Hamilton  annexed  to  his 
patent  specification. 

The  carbon  dioxide  was  contained  in  a  gas-holder,  A,  and 
the  solution  to  be  aerated  was  introduced  into  the  tank,  B. 
By  the  action  of  the  piston  of  the  pump,  D,  which  received  its 
motion  from  the  crank  above,  gas  was  drawn  into  the  tube,  C, 
through  its  capillary  opening,  a,  and  soda  solution  into  the  same 
tube  through  the  opening,  b.  After  passing  the  valve,  H,  the 
mixture  of  gas  and  liquid  was  driven  forward  by  the  pump  into 
the  cylinder,  Q,  which  was  made  of  glass,  and  was  provided  with 
a  safety-valve,  R,  which  could  be  regulated  so  as  to  allow  excess 
of  either  liquid  or  gas  to  escape.  This  condenser  received  an 
oscillating  movement,  communicated  to  it  from  the  crank  above 
through  the  distending  cross-piece,  S,  the  object  of  which  was 
to  accelerate  the  incorporation  of  the  carbon  dioxide  with 
the  liquid. 

After  being  saturated  with  the  gas  under  the  desired  pressure 
in  the  condenser,  the  liquid  was  drawn  off  through  the  tube,  U, 
into  the  bottles,  which  were  applied  below  the  valve,  X, 
controlled  by  the  handle  at  the  side. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  soda-water  bottle  shown  at  Z  in 
the  diagram  is  of  the  well-known  conical  shape.  This  form  of 
bottle  was  invented  by  Hamilton,  who  thus  describes  it  in 
his  specification  :—  "  I  generally  use  a  glass  or  earthen  bottle 
or  jar  of  a  long  oval  form,  for  several  reasons — viz.,  not  having 
a  square  bottom  to  stand  upon,  it  can  only  be  on  its  side,  of 
course  ;  no  leakage  of  air  can  take  place,  the  liquid  matter  being 
always  in  contact  with  the  stopper.  It  is  much  stronger  than 
a  bottle  or  jar  of  equal  weight  made  in  the  usual  form." 

Another  distinctive  feature  about  Hamilton's  machine  was 
that  the  pump  had  a  solid  piston,  which  worked  beneath  the 
pump  through  leather  packing. 

In  the  old  type  of  machine  the  piston  of  the  pump  was  of 
leather,  fitting  tightly  into  the  barrel,  and,  as  is  mentioned 
elsewhere,  leakage  of  gas  readily  occurred,  notwithstanding 
constant  cooling  of  the  pump  to  prevent  heating  through 
condensation  of  the  gas. 

Hamilton  sold  all  the  rights  secured  by  his  two  patents  for 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     119 

the  sum  of  £000 ;  but  his  machine  did  not  long  retain  its  position, 
for  by  the  year  1820  it  had  been  displaced  by  Bramah's  con- 
tinuous machine,  which  adopted  its  principle,  but  improved  in 
many  directions  upon  its  mechanism. 

Bramah's  Continuous  Machine. — In  Bramah's  machine,  too, 
the  water  and  the  gas  were  pumped  together  into  an  oval 
condenser  capable  of  resisting  the  pressure,  and  after  mechanical 
agitation  to  complete  the  absorption  of  the  gas,  the  aerated 
liquid  was  discharged  through  a  tap  provided  with  a  nipple 
for  bottling. 


FIG.  45. — Bramah's  Original  Machine. 


The  arrangement  of  the  different  parts  of  Bramah's  first 
machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  45,  which  is  reproduced  from  an 
original  drawing  by  John  Briggs. 

The  essential  novelty  in  the  apparatus  was  the  pump  and 
condenser,  which  are  shown  in  full  view  on  the  left,  and  in  side 
view  on  the  right  of  the  diagram. 

The  carbon  dioxide  was  drawn  from  the  gasometer  through 
a  pipe  to  the  right  of  the  condenser,  while,  simultaneously 
and  by  the  same  stroke  of  the  pump,  liquid  was  drawn  from  the 
solution  tank  on  the  other  side  of  the  condenser. 


120  MINERAL   AND    AERATED    WATERS 

As  in  the  case  of  Hamilton's  machine,  Bramah's  pump  had 
a  solid  piston  surrounded  by  a  flexible  collar,  which  became 
tighter  with  the  increase  of  pressure.  Unlike  the  pumps  in 
the  older  machines,  the  pump  of  Bramah's  machine  had  its 
piston  working  upwards,  so  that  the  water  and  gas  were  drawn 
in  by  the  down  stroke,  and  driven  forward  by  the  up  stroke. 

The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  was  that  the  gas  preceded 
the  water  in  the  pump,  and  that  the  water,  being  at  the  bottom, 
formed  a  seal  that  effectually  prevented  the  loss  of  any  gas 
if  the  piston  were  defective.  The  necessity  of  cooling  the 
pump  was  also  obviated,  and  the  valves  could  readily  be 
removed  for  cleaning.  According  to  Briggs  attempts  were 
made  by  various  manufacturers  to  adapt  their  old  pumps 
to  the  new  type  of  machinery,  but  the  results  were  invariably 
unsatisfactory  when  they  were  used  for  gas  and  liquid  at  the 
same  time. 

This  was  obviously  due  to  the  fact  that  the  water,  being 
heavier  than  the  gas,  was  expelled  first  by  the  down  stroke  of 
the  piston,  while  the  gas,  being  left  without  any  water-seal  as 
in  Bramah's  pump,  was  liable  to  escape  when  there  was  the 
slightest  defect  in  the  packing.  In  fact,  pumps  thus  adapted 
were  in  constant  need  of  repair,  and,  to  quote  Briggs,  "  a 
machine  of  this  kind  was  about  the  worst  that  could  be  made." 

Bramah  added  the  manufacture  of  soda  water  machines  to 
his  other  industries,  and  after  Bramah's  death  in  1815,  his  pupil, 
William  Russell  (who  was  the  founder  of  the  firm  of  Hayward- 
Tyler  &.  Co.);  also  began  to  make  machines  upon  the  same 
pattern. 

One  of  the  earliest  machines  made  by  the  firm  is  represented 

n    the    accompanying    figure    (Fig.    46).     This    was    capable 

of  producing  from  120  to  130  dozens  of  bottles  of  soda  water 

per  day  by  hand  power,  or  about  300  dozens  when  steam 

was  used. 

As  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  preceding  diagram  (p.  119), 
its  construction  was  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  Bramah's 
original  machine,  the  difference  being  that  it  was  larger  and 
more  strongly  made. 

Of  the  letters  indicating  the  different  parts  of  the  apparatus, 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS     121 

A  denotes  the  gas  generator,  with  its  acid  bottle,  B  ;  C,  the  gaso- 
meter ;  D,  the  condenser  ;  G,  the  pump  ;  M,  the  solution 
tank  ;  E,  the  bottling  cock  ;  and  F,  the  wheel  for  driving  the 
agitator  within  the  condenser  and  for  working  the  pump. 


FIG.  46. — Hayward-Tyler's  Earliest  Continuous  Machine. 

In  all  essential  details,  Bramah's  original  machine  is  that 
which,  in  one  or  other  of  its  modifications,  is  still  used  in 
mineral  water  factories  all  over  the  world. 

A    beam    action    machine    upon    Bramah's    principle    was 


12-2 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


patented  by  Hayward-Tyler  in  1840  (English  Patent,  No.  8421), 
the  novelty  of  which  was  that  the  pump  was  worked  by  the 
oscillation  of  the  beam,  an  arrangement  that  allowed  two 
handles  to  be  fixed  to  the  crank  shaft,  so  that,  where  only 
hand  power  was  available,  the  machine  could  be  worked  by 
two  men,  one  at  each  end  of  the  shaft. 

The  arrangement  of  this  machine,  without  the  connected 
generator  and  gasometer,  may  be  seen  in  the  accompanying 
illustration  (Fig.  47). 

A  machine  upon  the  same  principle  with  double  pumps  and 
double  condensers  was  also  made. 

Early  French  Machinery. 
—Until  the  year  1840  the 
French  mineral  water  in- 
dustry was  restricted  by 
law  to  the  pharmacists, 
who  jealously  protected 
themselves  against  any  en- 
croachment upon  their 
rights.  Mineral  waters 
were  looked  upon  as  phar- 
maceutical preparations, 
and  ordinary  soda  water 
was  sold  at  the  prohibitive 
price  of  a  franc  to  a  franc 
and  a-half  a  bottle. 

The  outbreak  of  cholera 
in  Paris  in  1832  created  a 
greater  popular  demand 

for  aerated  waters  (Eau  de  Selte),  the  carbonic  acid  in 
which  was  regarded  as  a  remedy  and  preventative  against 
the  disease.  But  the  price  still  remained  very  high,  until 
in  the  year  1840  Fevre  put  upon  the  market  separate 
packets  of  tartaric  acid  and  sodium  bicarbonate,  which  were 
brought  together  in  a  gasogene.  The  ready  sale  with  which 
these  powders  met  at  5  centimes  per  packet  caused  the  Parisian 
pharmacists  to  contest  their  legality,  since,  as  they  alleged; 
their  sale  was  an  infringement  of  the  legal  monopoly  to  dispense 


FIG.  47. — Hayward-Tyler's  Beam 
Action  Machine. 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBON ATING    APPARATUS     123 

medicinal  preparations.  Judgment  was  given  against  the 
pharmacists  in  1845.  and  this  eventually  had  the  result  of 
destroying  the  monopoly  of  the  druggists  in  ordinary  aerated 
waters  ;  for  Fevre's  packets  were  now  sold  everywhere,  and  the 


manufacture  of  soda  water  could  no  longer  be  kept  within  its 
former  narrow  and  profitable  limits. 

Yet  the  fact  that  for  over  fifty  years  the  mineral  water 
industry  had  been  artificially  restricted  had  had  its  effect  upon 


124 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


the  type  of  machinery  used  in  France.  The  general  trend  was 
to  produce  apparatus  that  would  yield  only  a  limited  amount 
of  aerated  waters,  such  as,  for  example,  the  machines  of 
Planche,  described  on  a  previous  page  (p.  101).  And  when 
larger  plant  became  necessary,  the  aim  of  the  inventors  was 
to  produce  a  machine  that  should  take  up  very  little  room 
and  be  easily  handled  by  a  single  individual. 

This  probably  accounts  for  the 
great  attention  given  in  France  to 
intermittent  apparatus  without  a 
pump  or  gasometer,  many  of  which 
machines  were  designed  by  phar- 
macists. 

When  the  industry  became 
"  free  "  the  necessity  for  a  more 
rapid  process  of  manufacture  soon 
made  itself  felt,  and  modifications 
of  Hamilton's  and  Bramah's  con- 
tinuous machines  came  into 
general  use. 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  accom- 
panying diagram  (Fig.  48),  in 
which  one  of  the  early  French 
machines  is  shown,  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  plant  was  similar  to 
that  of  the  English  machines. 
The  gas  was  generated  in  the 
vessel  on  the  right,  which  was 

provided  with  a  vertical  agitator,  and  was  fed  by  an  acid 
bottle  above  ;  thence  it  passed  through  a  barrel  of  water,  where 
it  was  washed,  and  into  the  gasometer.  The  pump,  which 
was  constructed  on  Bramah's  principle,  drew  the  gas  from 
the  gasometer  on  one  side  and  from  a  solution  tank  on  the 
other,  and  pumped  them  simultaneously  into  the  saturator 
above,  where  the  mixture  was  mechanically  agitated,  and 
finally  was  drawn  off  into  the  bottling  machine  on  the  extreme 
left. 

The  construction  of  the  gasometer  used  in  French  machines 


FIG.  49. — Early  French 
Gasometer. 


EAELY  FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS    125 

is  seen  in  Fig.  49,  which  represents  one  of  those  made  fifty 
years  ago  by  Hermann-Lachapelle. 

The  difference  between  German  and  French  and  English 
gasometers  was  that  in  the  first  the  gas  was  conveyed  above 
the  water  in  the  surrounding  tank,  while  in  the  two  latter  it 
was  made  to  bubble  through  the  water,  and  thus  received 
an  additional  washing. 

The  American  Intermittent  System. — The  principle  of  car- 
bonating  by  impregnating  the  liquid  directly  in  a  cylinder 
without  the  intervention  of  any  gasometer,  which  was  tried 
in  so  many  of  the  early  French  machines,  has  been  adopted 
extensively  in  the  United  States  largely  on  account  of  the 
great  demand  for  portable  "  soda  fountains." 

Although  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  modifications 
of  the  continuous  system  have  gradually  come  into  general 
use,  the  older  method  is  still  widely  employed,  the  chief  modifi- 
cation having  been  the  substitution  of  gas  tubes  for  the 
generators. 

One  of  the  earlier  forms  of  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  50, 
which  represents  a  sectional  view  of  Matthews'  vertical 
generator  connected  with  a  portable  fountain. 

In  this  machine  the  marble  or  other  carbonate  is  made  to 
fall  through  the  dilute  acid,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  for 
constant  agitation,  and  preventing  too  violent  evolution  of 


The  required  proportion  of  ac  d  and  water  is  first  poured 
into  the  lower  chamber  V,  through  the  opening,  A,  which  is 
then  screwed  down.  The  weighed  quantity  of  crushed  marble 
is  then  introduced  through  the  larger  opening,  B,  where  it  rests 
upon  the  wings,  P,  of  the  agitator,  E,  which  has  previously 
been  turned  so  as  to  close  the  openings  in  the  diaphragm.  The 
generator  is  now  charged  and  ready  for  connecting  with  the 
portable  fountain,  L.  On  slowly  turning  the  handle,  E,  a  little 
of  the  marble  dust  falls  through  the  diaphragm  into  the  acid 
in  the  lower  chamber,  the  process  being  continued  until  the 
desired  pressure  is  shown  on  the  indicator,  after  which  the 
handle  is  placed  so  as  to  close  the  diaphragm  openings. 


126 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


The  gas  produced  is  passed  through  purifiers,  X,  Y,  con- 
taining water  and  chips  of  marble,  and  enters  the  fountain  by 
the  pipe,  T,  at  the  top.  This  fountain  is  mounted  on  a  frame, 


FIG.  50. — Matthews'  Vertical  Generator. 

so  that  it  can  be  rocked  to  promote  the  saturation  of  the  liquid 
by  the  gas. 

The   portable   "  fountain,"    or   "  cylinder "    as   it   is   more 
commonly  termed  in  this  country,  is  then  detached  from  the 


EARLY   FORMS   OF   CARBONATING   APPARATUS    127 

generator,  and  is  ready  for  delivery  to  the  customer,  who  usually 
places  it  beneath  the  counter  in  connection  with  a  draught 
column  (see  p.  171). 

The  method  of  charging  these  portable  cylinders  by  means 
of  liquid  carbon  dioxide  is  very  simple,  the  gas  being  made  to 
pass  slowly  through  a  pressure  gauge  into  a  fountain.  It  is 
safer  to  have  an  automatic  pressure  governor,  which  as  soon  as 
the  desired  pressure  is  reached  automatically  cuts  off  the 
supply  of  gas. 

The  cylinder  may  also  be  charged  by  means  of  any  large 
soda  water  machine. 


CHAPTER   VIII 

THE  MACHINERY  OF  TO-DAY:  THE  PUMP — GENERATORS — GAS 
TUBES  —  SODA  WATER  MACHINES  —  COMBINED  COOLING, 
ETC. — CONDENSERS — SODA-WATER  BOTTLING  MACHINERY. 
ARRANGEMENT  OF  A  SODA  WATER  FACTORY 

Carbonating  Machinery  of  To-day. — In  modern  mineral  water 
factories  the  carbonating  machinery  chiefly  employed  is  still 
based  upon  the  principle  of  the  continuous  process  invented 
by  Hamilton  and  perfected  by  Bramah,  the  improvements 
that  have  been  made  of  recent  years  having  been  mainly  in 
the  directions  of  simplifying  the  working  of  the  machines  and 
increasing  their  speed,  and  in  the  processes  and  machinery 
for  bottling. 

The  older  cylinder  or  intermittent  process  (see  p.  103)  still 
survives,  however,  as  an  auxiliary  method  in  many  factories, 
and  is  useful  in  cases  where  a  relatively  small  amount  of 
liquid,  such  as  lithia  water,  for  which  the  demand  is  restricted, 
has  to  be  carbonated. 

In  some  factories,  indeed,  the  oldest  part  of  this  machine,  the 
wooden  cylinder  described  on  p.  104,  may  even  now  be  found, 
the  idea  being  that  a  liquid  carbonated  within  a  wooden  vessel 
is  less  liable  to  become  contaminated  with  metallic  impurities 
than  when  the  saturation  is  effected  in  cylinders  of  metal. 

Since,  however,  the  interior  of  all  soda  water  machinery  is 
now  usually  lined  with  pure  tin,  the  risk  of  contamination 
from  this  source  is  infinitesimal  ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
chance  of  bacterial  infection  of  the  soda  water  is  greatly 
increased  when  vessels  of  wood  are  used  in  the  manufacturing 
processes. 

This  so-called  intermittent  process  of  aeration  is  more 
commonly  used  for  carbonating  light  beers  or  cider  than  for 
mineral  waters.  It  still  has  the  drawbacks,  mentioned  on  a 


THE    MACHINERY   OF   TO-DAY 


129 


previous  page,  of  the  pressure  diminishing  during  bottling,  and 
of  the  loss  of  gas  in  the  cylinder  when  the  pressure  is  kept  up 
by  pumping  in  the  course  of  the  bottling  process. 

The  cylinders  are  generally  made  of  copper  either  washed 
with  tin  inside,  or,  preferably,  lined  with  block  tin.     As  was 


FIG.  51. — Twin  Carbonating  Cylinders. 

discovered  long  ago,  the  intermittent  character  of  the  process 
is  largely  modified  by  the  use  of  twin  cylinders,  one  of  which  is 
being  charged  while  the  other  is  being  drawn  down.  The  loss 
of  gas  is  in  this  way  restricted  to  that  remaining  in  the  final 
cylinder  at  the  close  of  the  operation. 

M.W.  K 


130 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


A  pair  of  these  twin  cylinders,  made  by  Messrs.  Wickham 
&  Co.,  of  Ware,  is  shown  in  Fig.  51.  Each  of  the  cylinders  has 
a  capacity  of  over  40  gallons,  and  is  capable  of  carbonating 
36  gallons  at  a  charge.  The  liquid  within  the  cylinders  is 
agitated  by  the  action  of  fans,  which  are  made  to  revolve  by 
turning  the  handles,  while  in  the  larger  sizes  with  cylinders 

taking  charges  of  108 
gallons,  the  agitators  are 
worked  by  power. 

When  intended  for 
carbonating  soda  water 
the  cylinders  are  more 
strongly  made  and 
tested  against  higher 
pressures  than  those 
used  in  breweries. 

The    Generator.— 

Although     in     a     large 
number  of  mineral  water 
factories    the    generator 
has  been  superseded  by 
tubes    of   liquid   carbon 
dioxide,  which  is  made 
on  the  spot  or  is  bought 
in    cylinders,   there    are 
yet  many  places  where 
these    courses    are    not 
practicable,    and    some 
form  of  generator  must  be  used  for  the  production  of  the  gas. 
Various  forms  of  these  generators  are  employed,  ranging  in 
capacity  from  about  3  to  over  150  gallons. 

One  of  the  smaller  sizes,  made  by  Messrs.  Hay  ward-Tyler 
&  Co.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  52,  which  represents  an  upright  generator 
holding  14  gallons.  This  is  made  of  thick  lead,  and  has  a 
central  vertical  agitator  for  mixing  the  whiting  and  water, 
while  the  acid  is  introduced  through  the  inverted  syphon - 
feeding  device  (see  p.  88)  from  the  acid  box  above,  which  is 


FIG.  52. — Upright  Generator. 


THE   MACHINERY   OF    TO-DAY  331 

also  made  of  lead.  At  the  bottom  of  the  generator  an  opening, 
which  is  controlled  by  a  valve  of  special  construction,  is  pro- 
vided for  the  removal  of  the  calcium  sulphate  formed  in  the 
reaction. 

Horizontal  Generators. — The  horizontal  form  of  generator,  an 
example  of  which  is  given  in  the  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  53), 
presents  several  advantages  over  the  vertical  form.  Thus  the 
whiting  is  more  readily  distributed  and  prevented  from  caking 


FIG.  53. — Horizontal  Generator. 

at  the  bottom,  while  the  agitator,  being  also  in  the  horizontal 
position,  is  better  adapted  for  the  application  of  steam  power. 
If  intended  to  be  used  with  sodium  bicarbonate  instead  of 
whiting,  this  generator  is  made  of  a  specially  strong  metal. 

Any  risk  of  explosion  through  the  sudden  evolution  of  too 
much  gas  is  prevented  by  the  use  of  the  siphon  tube  for  the 
introduction  of  the  acid,  any  excessive  pressure  having  the 
effect  of  driving  the  acid  back  into  the  acid  box. 

The  gas  leaving  the  generator  bubbles  through  the  water  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  gasometer  into  the  bell,  and  is  thence 
drawn  off  by  the  soda  water  pump. 

K2 


132 


MINEEAL   AND   AEKATED  WATERS 


An  automatic  arrangement  for  regulating  the  supply  of  acid 
to  the  generator  (and  consequent  development  of  more  gas)  is 
shown  in  Fig.  54. 

The  outlet  in  the  acid  cistern  at  the  top  is  closed  by  a  valve, 
which  is  controlled  by  a  lever  connected  with  the  bell  of  the 
gasometer. 


FIG.  54. — Automatic  Device  for  Regulating  the  Supply  of  Acid. 

When  the  gas  is  drawn  off  by  the  soda  water  pump  the  bell 
sinks  in  the  gasometer  and  the  valve  is  opened,  admitting  more 
acid  to  the  generator.  The  gas  produced  raises  the  gasometer 
bell  again,  and  at  the  same  time  simultaneously  closes  the 
valve  in  the  acid  box  and  shuts  off  the  supply  of  acid.  The 
supply  of  gas  is  thus  made  entirely  dependent  upon  the  amount 
drawn  off  by  the  pump,  and  renders  the  process  an  intermittent 
one. 

The  Riley  "Safety"  Generator. — The  generators  made  by  the 


THE    MACHINERY   OF    TO-DAY 


133 


Riley  Manufacturing  Company,  are  of  cast  iron  lined  with  sheet 
lead,  and  are  provided  with  agitators  working  upon  a  vertical 
shaft,  and  put  in  motion  by  power  applied  to  the  wheel  at  the 
top. 


FIG.  55. — The  Eiley  "  Safety  "  Generator. 

A  specially  constructed  automatic  cooler  and  washer  is  placed 
between  the  generator  and  soda  water  pump  to  wash  and  cool 


134      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

the  gas,  as  shown  in  Fig.  55,  and  there  is  a  device  by  means  of 
which,  when  a  charge  is  finished,  a  plunger  that  is  drawn  up  by 
the  action  of  the  pump  automatically  closes  the  pipe  leading 
to  the  pump.  In  this  way  any  injury  to  the  lead  lining  of  the 
generator  through  suction  is  obviated. 

A  charge  of  sodium  bicarbonate  or  whiting  and  water  is 
introduced  into  the  generator,  and  the  requisite  quantity  of 
sulphuric  acid  is  placed  in  the  acid  box  at  the  top.  As  soon 
as  the  pressure  within  the  generator  attains  about  3  Ibs. 
the  supply  of  acid  is  automatically  cut  off,  while  an  additional 
safeguard  against  accident  is  furnished  by  an  outlet  valve 
at  the  bottom.  This  is  kept  tightly  closed  by  a  lever,  upon 
which  is  a  weight  sufficiently  heavy  to  withstand  even  an 
abnormal  pressure  within  the  generator.  Should,  however, 
the  pressure  attain  25  Ibs.  the  resistance  of  the  weight  is  over 
come,  the  valve  is  opened,  and  the  gas  escapes  while  the  other 
contents  of  the  generator  flow  out  on  to  the  ground.  This 
would  only  happen  when  the  agitator  had  been  stopped  while 
the  supply  of  acid  was  still  being  admitted. 

A  generator  of  the  size  illustrated  is  7  feet  in  height  and 
3  feet  3  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base.  It  is  constructed  to 
receive  a  charge  of  224  Ibs.  of  sodium  bicarbonate  and  130  Ibs. 
of  sulphuric  acid,  and  will  produce  sufficient  carbon  dioxide 
to  aerate  1,000  dozen  large  bottles  of  soda  water. 

A  double  type  of  these  generators  is  also  made  to  obviate  the 
necessity  of  any  stoppage  of  work  during  re-charging. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  will  be  gathered  that  all  the 
Riley  generators  are  adapted  to  be  directly  connected  with  the 
soda  water  pump,  and  that  the  use  of  a  gasometer  is  rendered 
unnecessary,  by  reason  of  the  special  devices  to  ensure  safety 
in  the  event  of  undue  pressure  being  developed. 

The  Gasometer. — With  the  exception  of  plant  including 
generators  with  special  devices  to  prevent  explosion,  such  as 
those  of  the  Riley  Manufacturing  Company,  a  gasometer  usu- 
ally forms  part  of  the  machinery  of  a  modern  mineral  water 
factory. 

The  internal  arrangement  of  the  gasometer  is  essentially  the 


THE   MACHINERY   OF    TO-DAY  135 

same  as  in  the  apparatus  in  use  at  the  beginning  of  last  century 
(see  p.  124).  The  gas  leaving  the  generator  is  preferably 
passed  through  a  washer  or  purifying  apparatus,  and  is  thence 
conducted  below  the  surface  of  the  water  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  gasometer,  where  it  receives  further  washing  before  rising 
into  the  bell. 

The  lower  vessel  is  frequently  made  of  oak,  while  the  bell 
is  of  sheet  copper  tinned  on  the  inside  ;  or,  as  is  the  practice 
in  many  works,  the  tank  may  be  constructed  of  wrought  iron 
and  the  bell  of  galvanized  iron. 

When  liquid  carbon  dioxide  is  used  as  the  source  of  the 
gas,  as  is  now  so  frequently  the  case,  several  tubes  are 
generally  grouped  round  the  tank  of  the  gasometer,  pipes  con- 
nected with  each  being  conducted  beneath  the  water.  In 
this  way  a  constant  supply  of  gas  to  the  gasometer  is  maintained 
without  interruption  to  couple  on  a  fresh  tube. 

The  water  within  the  tank  of  the  gasometer  washes  the  gas, 
though  this  is  not  so  essential  as  in  the  case  of  freshly  made 
gas.  The  addition  of  a  little  potassium  permanganate  to  the 
water  is  advantageous,  especially  when  the  gas  has  been  derived 
from  breweries,  since  it  keeps  the  water  itself  fresh,  and 
oxidises  impurities  in  the  gas. 

Continuous  Process  Machines.— In  its  essential  working  parts 
the  "  Bramah  "  machine  has  altered  but  little  during  the 
century  that  has  passed  since  its  invention.  The  frame  is  of 
different  construction  ;  but  the  machine  still  comprises  a  pump 
and  a  condenser,  which  contains  an  agitator  to  promote  the 
saturation  of  the  liquid  by  the  gas. 

The  chief  development  in  this  type  of  machine  has  been  the 
substitution  of  a  much  larger  condensing  cylinder  for  the 
original  type  of  cylinder,  so  as  to  increase  the  output  of  soda 
water  by  each  machine,  without  making  much  more  demand 
upon  the  space  in  the  factory. 

These  machines  have  cylinders  of  copper  or  gun  metal  with 
a  capacity  of  12  to  24  gallons,  and  are  designed  to  be  worked 
either  by  one  or  two  pumps.  In  each  case  the  cylinders  are 
either  tinned  inside,  or  they  may  be  lined  with  pure  tin 


136 


MINEEAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


-fs  inch  thick  to  prevent  metallic  contamination.  The  largest 
size  of  these  machines,  which  are  made  by  Messrs.  Hayward- 
Tyler  &  Co.,  is  represented  in  Fig.  56.  This  is  fitted  with  two 
3-inch  pumps  with  solid  plungers  of  the  type  described  below, 
and  is  provided  with  a  slate  solution  tank  to  hold  the  soda 


FIG.  56. — Hayward-Tyler's  New  Pattern  AA1  Machine,  with  Two  Pumps. 

solution  and  with  two  glass  saturators,  one  of  which  is  con- 
nected with  each  pump. 

With  the  larger  sizes  of  these  machines  about  300  dozens  of 
syphons,  or  over  2,000  dozens  of  10-oz.  bottles  of  soda 
water,  may  be  produced  each  day. 

The  Pump.— The  soda-water  pump  of  to-day  is  in  all  essential 


THE   MACHINERY   OF   TO-DAY  137 

details  that  which  was  used  in  Bramah's  first  continuous 
machine  (see  p.  119).  Its  construction  will  readily  be  under- 
stood by  reference  to  the  accompanying  figures  (Figs.  57  and  58), 
which  represent  one  of  Hayward-Tyler's  "  plunger  pumps," 
and  a  pump  with  leather  buckets. 

The  advantage  of  the  former  is  that  the  use  of  the  solid 
plunger  obviates  the  wear  caused  by  the  friction  of  the  leather 


FIG.  57. — Plunger  Pump.       FIG.  58. — Bucket  Pump. 

buckets  upon  the  interior  of  the  pump  barrel,  which  eventually 
necessitates  taking  the  whole  pump  to  pieces  for  re-adjustment 
of  the  barrel.  In  the  case  of  the  solid  plunger  pump  the  wear 
is  practically  restricted  to  the  plunger,  and  it  is  comparatively 
a  simple  matter  to  remove  this  and  "  regulate  "  without 
dismantling  the  entire  pump. 

Opinions  vary  as  to  the  relative  advantage  of  having  solid 
valves  within  the  pump,  or  of  having  the  valves  faced  with 
leather  or  other  material.  The  solid  valves  are  more  noisy 


138  MINERAL   AND   AERATED  WATERS 

than  the  others,  but  are,  as  a  rule,  much  more  durable.  It 
may  be  mentioned,  however,  that  in  some  pumps,  such  as  those 
made  by  the  Riley  Manufacturing  Company,  the  valves  have 
seats  of  a  particularly  durable  material. 

Hayward-Tyler's  New  Pattern  Pump. — The  latest  pattern  of 
pump  manufactured  by  Messrs.  Hay  ward-Tyler  &  Co.  is  shown 
in  Fig.  59. 


FIG.  59. — Hayward-Tyler's  New  Pattern  Pump. 

These  pumps  are  made  in  three  sizes,  with  diameters  ranging 
from  3  to  4  inches,  and  being  of  very  solid  construction  are  well 
adapted  for  the  work  of  large  factories. 

Each  pump  is  capable  of  producing  from  1,000  to  2,000  dozen 
bottles  per  day,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  liquid  to  be 
bottled,  and  all  are  tested  to  withstand  a  pressure  of  250  Ibs. 


THE    MACHINERY   OF   TO-DAY 


189 


A  still  greater  output  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  double  pumps 
of  this  kind  fixed  in  a  frame  so  as  to  form  a  separate  machine 
from  the  saturating  cylinder. 

Whether  single  or  double,  these  pumps  are  intended  to  be 
connected  with  a  cylindrical  condenser,  which  may  be  either 
vertical  or  horizontal,  and  like  the  pump,  forms  a  separate 
machine  in  its  own  stand. 


FIG.  60. — Gun  Metal  Horizontal  Cylinder. 

Fig.  60  shows  one  of  these  horizontal  cylinders,  which  are 
provided  with  a  central  agitator  t^f  accelerate  the  impregnation 
of  the  liquid,  and  with  two  glass  saturators,  which  promote 
still  further  the  thorough  incorporation  of  the  gas. 

The  "Riley"  Patent  Soda-water  Pump  and  Cylinder. — In 

this  apparatus  thorough  admixture  of  the  gas  and  water  is 


140 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


effected  without  the  use  of  any  agitator  in  the  cylinder,  the 
pumping  arrangement  being  so  constructed  as  to  render 
subsequent  agitation  quite  unnecessary. 

The  pump  is  made  on  the  Bramah  principle,  with  a  solid 
plunger  working  in  the  reverse  manner  to  a  force  pump.     This 


FIG.  61.— The  "  Eiley  "  Patent  Soda  Water  Pump  and  Cylinder. 

plunger  rises  very  nearly  to  the  top  of  the  barrel,  leaving  only 
a  very  small  space,  and  within  this  the  mixture  of  gas  and  liquid 
is  subjected  to  considerable  pressure  before  it  forces  back  a 
spring  and  enters  the  cylinder. 


THE    MACHINERY   OF    TO-DAY 


141 


The  silver-plated  tube  in  the  connection  between  the  pump 
and  the  "  super-saturator  "  is  pierced  with  a  number  of  fine 
holes,  through  which  the  liquid  is  driven  in  a  fine  spray  against 
the  walls  of  the  glass  globe,  thus  completing  the  impregnation 
of  the  water  by  the  gas.  Thence  it  passes  through  a  valved 
tube  into  the  cylinder,  and  is  ready  to  be  drawn  off  into  the 
bottling  machine. 


FIG.  62.- The  "Biley  "  Patent  Double  Soda  Water  Pump  and  Cylinder. 

The  cylinder  is  constructed  of  drawn  copper,  lined  with  pure 
tin,  and  is  provided  with  a  retaining  valve  so  that  the  pump 
may  be  disconnected  without  loss  of  gas. 

The  construction  of  this  machine  will  be  understood  by 
reference  to  the  accompanying  illustration  (Fig.  61),  which, 
proceeding  from  left  to  right,  shows  the  pump,  super-saturator, 
and  cylinder.  The  tap  shown  at  the  base  of  the  machine  is 
intended  for  drawing  off  any  water  that  has  been  left  in  the 
cylinder  from  a  previous  day,  and  thus  at  the  same  time 
enabling  the  pump  to  be  started  more  readily. 


142  MINEEAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

The  size  of  machine  here  shown,  with  a  3-inch  pump,  is  that 
in  most  general  use,  but  larger  machines  with  3j  and  4-inch 
pumps  are  also  made  :  while  in  factories,  where  the  output  is 
very  large,  machines  with  one  cylinder  charged  by  two  pumps 
have  been  erected  (see  Fig.  62),  effecting  a  considerable  economy 
in  the  original  cost  and  a  saving  in  space. 

The  writer  can  state,  from  an  experience  extending  over 
many  years,  that  the  Riley  soda-water  pump  and  cylinder 
gives  excellent  results  in  practice,  and  that  the  machine  rarely 
requires  any  repairs. 

The  " Aerate-Cool "  Machine.-  The  production  of  a  well- 
carbonated  soda  water,  which  will  retain  the  gas  for  a  long 
period  after  the  bottle  has  been  opened,  depends  to  a  consi- 
derable extent  upon  the  temperature  at  which  the  liquid  is 
impregnated  with  the  gas.  This  point  is  of  essential  import- 
ance to  manufacturers  in  hot  climates,  for,  as  has  already  been 
pointed  out  (p.  46),  the  amount  of  gas  that  water  can  absorb 
decreases  with  the  rise  in  temperature. 

Various  machines  for  chilling  a  liquid  by  means  of  the 
expansion  of  carbon  dioxide  have  been  dealt  with  in  Chapter  V.  ; 
but  the  recently  patented  "Aerate-Cool  "  machine  of  Hay  ward- 
Tyler  &  Co.  is  more  appropriately  described  in  this  place, 
since  it  combines  in  one  piece  of  machinery  the  processes  of 
chilling  and  carbonating. 

In  this  machine  (Fig.  63)  the  soda-water  pump  on  the  left 
side  works  independently  of  the  compressor  or  cooling  pump 
on  the  right,  though  both  are  driven  by  the  same  crank  shaft. 
The  carbon  dioxide  used  for  refrigerating  circulates  through 
the  compressing  pump  and  coils  contained  in  a  circulating  tank 
and  in  the  solution  pan  at  the  top.  After  being  compressed  by 
the  pump  to  a  pressure  of  800  to  850  Ibs.  it  passes  through  a 
valve  and  expands,  and  entering  the  coils  in  the  cylinder  at 
the  base  of  the  machine  chills  the  temperature  of  the 
surrounding  water  down  to  about  40°  F. 

The  water  thus  cooled  is  carbonated  in  the  usual  way  by 
means  of  the  other  pump,  which  obtains  its  supply  of  carbon 
dioxide  from  an  ordinary  gas-holder. 


THE    MACHINERY   OF   TO-DAY 


143 


About  1,500  dozen  bottles  of  soda  water  may  be  charged  in 
a  day  by  means  of  this  machine,  and  the  liquid  thus  carbonated 
and  bottled  at  a  temperature  of  40°  F.  under  a  pressure  of 
70  Ibs.  in  the  cylinder  will  be  found  to  contain  much  more  gas 
than  when  bottled  at 
a  pressure  of  120  Ibs. 
at  the  ordinary 
s  u  mm  e  r  tempera- 
ture. 

Another  advan- 
tage of  this  machine 
is  that  either  of  the 
pumps  may  be  used 
by  itself ;  thus,  if 
desired,  the  chilling 
may  be  omitted,  or 
the  compressing 
pump  may  be  utilised 
to  cool  water  for 
other  purposes  with- 
out starting  the 
aerating  pump. 
Thus,  for  example, 
it  may  be  utilised  in 
chilling  ginger  beer 
to  the  necessary  tem- 
perature before  the 
addition  of  the  yeast. 


- v  r :: 


FIG.  63.— Hayward-Tyler's  "  Aerate-Cool  " 
Machine. 


Machines   for   Use 
with   Liquefied   Gas. 

—The  growing  use  of 
tubes    of    liquid 

carbon  dioxide  for  carbonating  soda  water  by  means  of  the 
ordinary  plant  has  led  to  the  designing  of  compact  machinery 
in  which  the  gasometer  is  eliminated. 

A  horizontal  machine  of  this  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  64.     This 
was  made  for  H.M.S.  Powerful  by  Messrs.  Hayward-Tyler  &  Co.. 


144 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


and  is  especially  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  soda  water  for 
hospitals  and  small  establishments. 

The  gas  tube  is  connected  with  the  cylinder  by  means  of  a 
pipe,  upon  which  is  an  automatic  reducing  valve  to  regulate 
the  supply  of  gas,  while  water  is  pumped  into  the  cylinder  by 
means  of  the  pump  at  the  bottom.  The  agitation  of  the 
liquid  and  gas  is  effected  by  an  agitator,  which  is  worked  at  the 
same  time  as  the  pump  by  turning  the  handle. 


FlG.  64. — Horizontal  Machine  for  Use  with  Tubes  of  Liquefied  Gas. 

Any  form  of  bottling  machine  may  be  connected  with  the 
cylinder,  and  about  35  dozen  bottles  of  soda  water  can  be 
produced  in  an  hour  by  the  machine. 

The  "  Combined  Vertical  "  machine  of  the  same  firm  is  still 
more  compact  than  the  preceding  one.  It  comprises  a  vertical 
copper  cylinder  and  saturator,  together  with  an  automatic 


THE    MACHINERY   OF    TO-DAY 


145 


reducing  valve,  with  pressure  gauge  between  the  gas  tube  and 
the  cylinder  (Fig.  65). 

As  in  the  case  of  the  horizontal  machine,  the  water  is  pumped 
into  the  cylinder  by  turning  the  fly-wheel,  but  the  use  of  the 
saturator  renders  agitation  unnecessary.  The  machine  may 
be  fitted  with  a  Turnover  Bottling  Machine  for  charging  Codd's 
bottles  (p.  154),  or  with  a  syphon-filling  machine,  or  with  both 
as  shown  in  the  illustration. 


FIG.  65. — Vertical  Machine  for  Use  with  Liquefied  Gas. 

The  process  of  manufacture  is  continuous,  the  output  being 
about  22  dozen  bottles  of  soda  water  per  hour. 

The  method  of  using  portable  soda-water  fountains  charged 
by  means  of  tube  gas  is  described  on  another  page  (see  p.  171). 

Care  must  be  taken  to  ensure  the  purity  of  the  gas  supplied 
in  the  tubes,  since  even  if  there  is  only  a  small  proportion  of 
air  present  it  is  impossible  to  produce  a  satisfactory  soda  water. 

M.W.  L 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


Arrangement  of  a  Mineral  Water  Factory  .—In  a  modern 
factory  the  syrup  tanks  and  the  tank    for    the  soda  solution 


THE   MACHINERY   OF   TO-DAY  147 

are  placed  on  a  floor  above  the  bottling  machines,  with  which 
they  are  connected  by  means  of  pipes  of  tin  or  of  glass. 

The  generator  for  the  gas  (or  the  gasometer  with  the  gas  tubes; 
and  the  pumps  are  usually  put  in  a  separate  room  opening  into 
the  bottling  factory,  so  as  to  keep  the  processes  distinct,  and 
another  series  of  pipes  connects  the  soda-water  machines  with 
the  bottling  machines. 

The  general  arrangement  is  thus  somewhat  upon  the  lines 
shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram  (Fig.  66). 

In  the  case  of  soda  water  a  concentrated  solution  of  sodium 
carbonate  is  made  in  a  slate  tank  with  a  closely  fitting  cover, 
and  measured  quantities  of  this  are  drawn  off  into  each  bottle 
through  the  one  tube,  while  aerated  water  from  the  soda-water 
machine  enters  the  bottle  through  another  tube. 

In  like  manner  lemonade,  ginger  ale,  or  other  sweetened  goods 
are  prepared  by  a  regulated  quantity  of  filtered  lemon  syrup, 
and  so  on,  being  introduced  into  the  bottle  with  the  aerated 
water. 

The  process  of  introducing  the  sodium  carbonate  solution  or 
the  syrup  is  known  as  "  syruping  "  the  bottle,  even  when,  as 
in  the  case  of  soda  water,  no  sugar  is  present. 


CHAPTER    IX 

BOTTLES  AND  BOTTLING  MACHINERY 

Bottling  Machinery. — In  all  the  early  machines  the  bottles 
were  filled  from  the  carbonating  cylinder  by  hand,  and  con- 
siderable skill  and  practice  were  necessary  to  prevent  a  great 
loss  in  the  pressure.  Even  in  the  hands  of  the  most  experienced 
men,  however,  the  method  of  "  hand-and-knee  bottling,"  as  it 
was  subsequently  termed,  involved  some  loss,  the  amount  of 
which  depended  on  the  speed  of  working  and  the  initial 
pressure. 

The  bottles  with  their  corks  loosely  inserted  in  their  necks 
were  placed  to  the  right  of  the  bottler,  who  sat  upon  a  low 
stool  in  front  of  the  tap,  with  his  knees  covered  with  a  leather 
apron,  on  which  rested  a  board,  and  his  hands  and  arms 
protected  by  gloves.  Each  bottle  was  brought  in  turn  beneath 
the  leather  fitting  of  the  tap,  and  was  held  in  position  by  the 
pressure  of  the  knee,  while  the  cylinder  tap  was  turned.  The 
aerated  liquid  rushed  into  the  bottle,  and  the  air  in  the  latter 
was  then  expelled  by  lowering  the  knee  a  little  and  thus  easing 
the  neck  slightly  from  the  leather  fitting  of  the  tap,  so  as  to 
allow  the  filling  to  be  completed.  The  cock  was  now  shut  off, 
the  bottle  rapidly  withdrawn,  and  its  cork  skilfully  inserted 
and  driven  home  by  the  blow  of  a  wooden  mallet,  after  which  it 
was  immediately  wired  down  by  a  second  workman. 

It  is  obvious  that  with  a  process  of  this  kind  there  was  inevit- 
ably a  want  of  uniformity  of  pressure  within  the  bottles,  and 
that  there  was  a  great  difference  between  the  results  obtained 
by  a  skilled  and  an  inexperienced  bottler. 

A  demand  thus  arose  for  a  machine  that  could  be  worked 
by  a  relatively  inexperienced  person,  and  that  would  minimise 
the  loss  of  pressure  involved  in  bottling  by  hand 


BOTTLES   AND   BOTTLING   MACHINERY          149 

Briggs'  Bottling  Machine. — The  first  bottling  machine  made 
in  this  country  was  invented  about  1830  by  John  Briggs, 
manager  to  Hayward-Tyler  &  Co.  In  this  machine,  an  illus- 
tration of  which  is  given  in  Fig.  67,  the  cork  was  inserted  into 
a  conical  holder,  d,  which  became  narrower  towards  the  bottom, 
so  that  the  cork  became  compressed  on  its  passage  downwards. 

The  bottle,  h,  was  placed  on  a  wooden  support,  /,  beneath  the 
cork  holder,  and  could  be  raised  or  lowered  as  desired  by  the 
pressure  of  the  foot  upon  the  treadle,  h,  at  the  base.  A  screw- 
valve  at  the  side,  connected  with  the  pipe 
from  the  carbonating  cylinder,  was  opened 
to  admit  the  soda  water  into  the  bottle, 
the  neck  of  which  could  subsequently  be 
eased  by  means  of  the  treadle.  The  cork 
was  then  forced  down  by  the  action  of 
the  rack,  E,  which  was  moved  up  or  down 
by  turning  the  handle. 

A  few  years  later  Hayward-Tyler  &  Co. 
introduced  a  modification  of  this  machine, 
the  improvement  in  which  was  that  a 
weighted  lever,  adjusted  to  the  desired 
pressure,  was  employed  to  press  the  bottle 
upwards  into  the  mouthpiece.  Atmos- 
pheric air  was  thus  automatically  expelled, 
and  an  equal  pressure  obtained  within  each 
bottle  before  the  cork  was  driven  in  by  Bottling  Machine.  1830. 
the  lever  at  the  top.  This  lever  was  also 

provided  with  a  weight  to  raise  the  handle  again,  and  bring 
the  plunger  out  of  the  cork  holder,  while  a  handle  in  front  of 
the  machine  held  the  bottle  steady  during  corking,  and  also 
served  to  raise  the  bottom  weight  and  release  the  bottle 
(Fig.  68). 

The  bottling  machine  claimed  on  behalf  of  Savaresse  in 
Berry's  patent  (English  Patent,  No.  7,899  of  1838)  is  shown 
in  the  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  69).  It  was  connected  by 
means  of  two  leaden  pipes  with  the  carbonating  apparatus 
described  on  a  previous  page  (see  p.  112). 

The  end  of  one  of  these  pipes  was  attached  to  the  cock  of 


150 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


the  saturating  cylinder,  and  the  other  end  to  the  cock,  v,  of 
the  bottling  machine.  The  other  tube  formed  a  connection 
between  the  cock,  w,  and  another  cock  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  cylinder.  The  bottle  was  raised  and  pressed  against 

a  rubber  or  cork  washer 
by  the  action  of  the 
foot,  and  a  cork  was 
inserted  in  the  holder,  x. 
Then  by  turning  the  tap, 
w,  the  pressure  within 
the  bottle  was  made 
equal  to  that  within  the 
cylinder,  and  on  now 
opening  the  tap,  ?;,  the 
liquid  ran  into  the 
bottle,  expelling  the  air 
through  the  cock,  w,  and 
a  valve  in  the  cylinder, 
in  the  upper  part  of 
which  it  collected. 

When  the  bottle  was 
filled  the  cork  was  driven 
down  by  the  action  of 
the  lever,  y,  and  was 
immediately  tied  down 
with  string  or  wire. 

Macdonell's  Automatic 
Corking  Machine.  —  In 

this  machine,  which  is 
worked  by  steam  power, 
the  corks  are  subjected 
to  considerable  lateral 

pressure,     by     means     of     the     special     device    illustrated 

(Fig.    70),     before     being    driven    into    the    bottle    by    the 

plunger. 

By  this  arrangement  a  larger  and  longer  cork  than  usual  may 

be  employed  without  risk  of  its  being  crushed  or  broken,  and 


FlG.  68.— Hay  ward-  Tyler's  Early 
Bottling  Machine. 


BOTTLES   AND    BOTTLING    MACHINERY 


151 


this  greatly  reduces  the  chance  of  bottles  technically  known  as 
"  leakers  "  being  sent  out. 

The  position  of  the  bottle  during  filling  and  of  its  supporting 
mechanism  behind  the  screen  is  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in 
the  illustration.  « 


FIG.  69.— Savaresse's  Bottling  Machine.    1838. 

To  prevent  loss  of  syrup  and  gas  during  bottling  a  special 
automatic  device  is  provided,  by  means  of  which  the  air  is 
expelled  by  carbon  dioxide  before  charging,  or  is  drawn  off 
into  a  vacuum  vessel.  Any  accumulation  of  cork  dust  is 
prevented  by  an  arrangement  which  automatically  washes 


152 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


it  away.     This  machine  may  be  regulated  to  take  any  size 
of  bottle. 


The  Wiring  of  Corks. — When  ordinary  corks  are  used  for 
closing  bottles  of  aerated  waters,  some  method  of  wiring  is 
required  to  prevent  the  cork  being  driven  out  of  the  bottle. 
In  the  case  of  ginger  beer  put  into  stone  bottles  and  left  to 
ferment  spontaneously,  a  much  lower  pressure  is  developed 
than  that  of  artificially  carbonated  waters,  which  show  a  pres- 
sure of  over  60  Ibs.,  so  that  string  is  usually  sufficiently 
strong  to  keep  the  corks  in  their  place. 

During  the  wiring  of  the 
corks  a  simple  stand  is  con- 
veniently employed  to  hold 

JBJ  DlKMil  the  bottle,  while  the  cork  is 

meanwhile  pressed  down  by 
the  action  of  a  lever  controlled 
by  a  treadle  at  the  base  of  the 
stand.  With  the  assistance 
afforded  by  one  of  these 
devices,  the  corked  bottles  are 
very  rapidly  wired  by  hand. 


FIG.  70.— Macdonell's  Automatic 
Corking  Machine. 


Howard's  Wiring  Machine. 

— A  great  saving  of  labour 
is  effected  by  the  use  of 
Howard's  wiring  machine,  an 
illustration  of  which  is  shown 

in  Fig.  71.  The  wire  is  carried  in  the  four  spools  at  the 
bottom  of  the  machine,  and  is  drawn  from  these  by  turning 
the  handle  on  the  right,  or  by  means  of  a  belt  connecting 
the  wheel  at  the  top  with  a  source  of  power,  a  convenient 
form  of  which  is  an  electric  motor. 

The  bottle  is  placed  upon  the  rest  seen  in  the  front  of  the 
machine,  and  is  raised,  so  that  its  neck  enters  the  wiring  head, 
by  pressing  down  the  treadle  with  the  foot.  The  four  wires  are 
here  guided  over  the  cork,  and  are  finished  off  by  a  single  loop 
upon  the  neck  of  the  bottle.  By  untwisting  this  with  the  finger 


BOTTLES  AND  BOTTLING  MACHINERY 


and  thumb,  the  whole  of  the  wire  is  removed  from  the  cork— 

a  great  advantage  over  the  older  method,  in  which  the  wire 

required    cutting,    and    a 

piece  was    invariably  left 

upon     the     neck    of     the 

bottle. 

From  50  to  70  dozen 
bottles  per  hour  can  be 
wired  by  this  machine,  and 
by  the  use  of  a  slight 
modification  it  can  also  be 
made  to  take  ginger-beer 
bottles. 

Bottles  with  Patent 
Stoppers.  -  -  The  use  of 

corks       for       closing       the  FIG.  71. — Howard's  Patent  Wiring  Machine. 

bottles  of  mineral   waters 

was  practically  universal  during  the  first  fifty  years  of   the 

industry.  Corks  are  still  employed 
to  a  large  extent  for  certain  classes 
of  goods,  and  there  is  much  to  be 
said  in  their  favour,  even  from  a 
hygienic  point  of  view.  The  objec- 
tions to  their  use  are  that  the 
uncorking  is  not  always  a  simple 
matter,  and  that  when  once  a 
bottle  is  opened  its  contents  must 
be  drunk  immediately,  since  it  is 
not  practicable  to  re-cork  the 
bottle  and  reserve  it  for  another 
time. 

Numerous  patents  have  been 
taken  out  for  special  stoppers  and 
bottles  to  overcome  these  draw- 
backs, and  while  some  of  these 
have  been  still-born  or  have  had 
only  a  short  commercial  life, 


FIG.  72.— Codd's  Patent  Bottle 
Stopper. 


154 


MINEKAL  AND  AEEATED  WATERS 


others   have   met  with  a  general  approval  which  shows  no 
signs  of  waning. 

Of  the  special  bottles  the  most  generally  known,  perhaps,  is 
that  commonly  described  as  "  Codd's  Patent  "  (Fig.  72).  This 
is  a  bottle  of  strong  glass,  either  with  a  flat  bottom  or  conical 
in  form.  In  the  neck  of  this  is  a  groove  of  a  particular  shape 

constricted  towards  the  base,  and 
within  this  small  chamber  lies  a 
movable  glass  marble,  which  is 
prevented  from  falling  into  the 
empty  bottle  by  the  constriction 
at  the  base.  When  the  bottle  is 
charged  with  aerated  water  the 
marble  is  forced  by  the  pressure  of 
the  gas  to  the  top  of  the  bottle, 
and  being  held  tightly  against  the 
inside  of  the  mouth,  where  the 
glass  is  constricted  prevents  either 
liquid  or  gas  from  escaping.  The 
bottle  is  opened  by  pressing  the 
ball  stopper  downwards  with  suffi- 
cient force  to  overcome  the  internal 
pressure,  and  the  marble,  falling 
into  the  chamber  in  the  neck, 
allows  the  liquid  to  pass. 

At  one  time  these  bottles  were 
very  widely  employed,  but  at  the 
present  day  are  only  found  in 
country  districts  ;  for  in  towns 
they  have  been  practically  super- 

FIG.  73.-Swins-Filimg  Machine  Seded  ^  b°ttleS  with  Patent  SCrew 
for  Codd's  Bottles.  stoppers. 

Various     machines    have    been 

devised  for  rapidly  filling  Codd's  bottles.  In  the  case  of  some 
of  these,  such  as  Hayward-Tyler's  Swing-filling  Machine  shown 
in  Fig.  73,  the  bottle  is  first  charged  with  syrup  or  soda 
solution  on  the  slanting  table,  and  then  swung  round  into  a 
vertical  position  so  that  the  marble  drops  down  into  the  neck. 


BOTTLES   AND   BOTTLING   MACHINERY 


155 


There  are  also  several  machines  that  are  automatic  in  their 
action,  and  that  charge  the  bottles  entirely  in  an  upright 
position.  These  work  by  steam  power  up  to  a  speed  of  over 
80  dozen  bottles  per  hour,  as  in  the  case  of  the  automatic 
machine  of  Hay  ward-Tyler  &  Co.  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  74. 

This  machine,  when  once  regulated,  charges  the  bottles  with 
liquid  and  gas,  and  if  by  accident 
a  bottle  is  not  placed  in  position, 
there  is  no  waste  of  solution. 

Lament's  Patent  Bottle. —The 
principle  of  keeping  the  stopper 
in  position  by  means  of  internal 
pressure  was  also  used  for  other 
patent  bottles  and  stoppers.  Thus 
Lament's  stoppers  (Fig.  75),  which 
were  made  of  wood,  ebonite  or 
glass,  had  double  elongated  ends, 
which  could  pass  through  an 
opening  in  the  mouth  of  the  bottle, 
but  were  held  in  position  by  the 
central  disc,  which  was  somewhat 
wider  in  diameter  than  a  glass 
ridge  blown  within  the  neck  of  the 
bottle.  These  bottles  lacked  the 
simplicity  of  Codd's  patent  bottles, 
and  in  the  case  of  the  wooden 
stoppers,  at  all  events,  were  ob- 
jectionable from  the  point  of  view 
of  cleanliness. 

Special  machines   were  devised 

for    filling    these    bottles,     which  FIG.  74.— Power  Filling  Machine 
could  readily  be  done  at  the  rate  for  Codd's  Bottles, 

of  40  to  60  dozen  per  hour. 

A  modification  of  this  form  of  stopper  is  still  used,  the 
ebonite  base  being  surrounded  by  a  rubber  ring,  which  makes 
a  tight  joint  in  the  neck  of  the  bottle. 

The  objection  to  this  principle  is  that  since  the  stopper 


156 


MINEKAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


remains  inside  the  bottle,  the  rubber  ring  can  only  be  removed 
and  renewed  by  the  use  of  a  special  instrument,  and  owing  to 
the  time  required  for  this  it  will  seldom  be  done.  Hence  the 
stopper  is  much  more  likely  to  be  a  cause  of  bacteriological 
impurity,  than  in  the  case  of  ordinary  corks  or  screw  stoppers. 

Screw  Stoppers. — The  invention  by  Barrett  of  the  now  well- 
known  screw  stoppers  for  bottles  was  welcomed  both  by 
brewers  and  mineral -water  makers,  since  it  solved  the  problem 

of  preventing  the  contents  of 
an  opened  bottle  becoming  flat. 
In  these  stoppers,  which  are 
made  of  vulcanite,  wood,  or 
other  hard  material,  the  base  is 
in  the  form  of  a  screw,  which 
is  adapted  to  fit  into  a  corres- 
ponding screw  groove  in  the 
neck  of  the  bottle,  while  the  top 
is  round  with  a  milled  edge, 
and  is  slightly  larger  than  the 
mouth  of  the  bottle. 

A  rubber  ring  fits  tightly 
over  the  top  of  the  screw  part 
of  the  stopper,  so  that  when 
the  latter  is  screwed  tightly 
down  the  bottle  is  closed  her- 
metically. It  is  thus  possible 

to  use  part  of  its  contents  and  reserve  the  remainder  while 
still  retaining  a  large  proportion  of  the  gas  in  the  liquid.  This 
type  of  stopper  is  extensively  used  for  light  carbonated  beers, 
and  is  also  the  usual  form  of  stopper  for  ginger  beer  when 
sent  out  in  glass  bottles. 

The  "Riley"  Patent  Stopper. — A  screw  stopper  based  upon 
a  similar  principle  to  that  just  described  has  been  patented  by 
the  Riley  Manufacturing  Company,  and  is  now  in  more  general 
use  than  any  other  form  of  stopper  (Fig.  76).  It  is  made  of 
vulcanite,  and  has  a  screw  which  fits  into  a  corresponding  groove 


FIG.  75. — Lament's  Patent  Bottle 
and  Stopper. 


BOTTLES   AND   BOTTLING   MACHINERY         157 

in  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  where  it  forms  a  tight  joint  by  means 
of  the  rubber  ring,  which  is  kept  in  place  by  a  projection  on 
the  stopper. 

The  upper  portion  of  the  stopper,  outside  the  bottle,  is 
elongated  and  has  a  depression  on  each 
side,  so  that  it  may  be  easily  held 
between  the  finger  and  thumb,  or  un- 
screwed with  the  assistance  of  a  holder 
adapted  for  the  purpose. 

As  in  the  case  of  most  stoppers  of 
the  kind  the  rings  are  made  of  red 
rubber,  and  contain  antimony,  the 
possible  action  of  which  upon  the  contents 

of  the  bottle  is  discussed  on  a  later  page.  FlG-  ^6-~E£ey's  Pateilt 

Screw  Stopper. 
The  question  of   their  bearing  upon  the 

bacteriological  purity  of  soda  water  is  also  considered  in 
Chapter  XI. 

Riley's  Machine  for  Screw  Stoppers. — A  machine,  worked  by 
steam  power,  was  invented  by  the  Riley  Manufacturing  Com- 
pany for  rapidly  charging  the  bottles  and  automatically  closing 
them  with  their  patent  stoppers.  This  machine  was  largely 
employed  by  mineral- water  manufacturers,  and  may  still  be 
found  in  many  factories,  although  during  the  last  three  years 
its  place  has  gradually  been  taken  by  the  rotary  counter- 
pressure  machine  described  on  p.  162. 

In  the  machine  which  this  is  superseding  there  is  a  cam  plate 
driven  by  friction,  and  the  action  of  the  machine  is  controlled 
by  a  lever  at  the  left-hand  side.  The  stopper  is  first  screwed 
down  into  the  bottle,  and  the  latter  placed  On  to  the  seat  with 
its  stopper  passing  into  a  slot  of  a  twisting  device  above.  This 
unscrews  the  stopper  and  allows  a  measured  quantity  of  syrup 
or  soda  solution  to  be  thrown  into  the  bottle,  after  which  the 
bottle  is  charged  with  carbonated  water  from  the  soda-water 
machine.  The  air  in  the  bottle  is  meanwhile  expelled  through 
a  snifting  valve  controlled  by  a  tap  on  the  right,  and  in  this 
process  there  is  an  inevitable  waste  of  liquid  and  gas.  The 
twisting  device  now  descends  again,  screws  the  stopper  tightly 


158 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


down,  and  releases  the  bottle,  which  is  then  removed  with  the 
left  hand  and  replaced  by  another  with  the  right  hand.  From 
50  to  60  dozen  bottles  per  hour  may  be  filled  with  this  machine 
by  a  practised  worker. 

During  the  filling  of  each  bottle  a  screw  automatically  closes 
in  front  of  the  bottle  as  a  safeguard  against  accidents  if  a  bottle 
should  burst,  and  the  worker  is  further  protected  from  injury  by 
wire  masks  over  the  face  and  gauntlets  on  the  arms,  the  use 
of  which  is  strictly  enforced.  The  accompanying  illustration, 


FIG.  77. — Eiley's  Screw-Stopper  Machines  at  Work. 

which  shows  the  way  in  which  a  number  of  these  machines 
could  be  connected  with  a  single  shafting,  represents  part  of 
the  interior  of  Messrs.  Beaufoy  &  Co.'s  works  as  it  was  about 
six  years  ago  (Fig.  77). 

For  the  purpose  of  the  photograph  the  girls  discarded  their 
masks  and  gauntlets,  which  was  never  done  under  the  conditions 
of  actual  work. 

The  drawback  of  these  and  similar  machines  by  other 
makers  is  the  "  snifting,"  or  drawing  off  the  air  during  the 
filling,  since  this  entails  a  simultaneous  loss  of  carbon  dioxide 
and,  in  the  case  of  sweetened  goods,  of  syrup. 


BOTTLES   AND   BOTTLING   MACHINERY 


159 


The  "Crown  Cork"  System. — A  novel  method  of  closing 
bottles  of  aerated  water  was  devised  some  years  ago  and 
described  by  this  name.  It  is  still  extensively  employed  by 
many  manufacturers,  as  it  is  both  hygienic  in  principle  and 
cheap  to  use. 

Essentially  it  consists  of  a  cap  of  tinned  steel  or  of  alumi- 
nium with  a  corrugated  edge.  Within  the  cap  is  fitted  a  disc 
of  prepared  paper  and  a  thin  disc  of  cork,  which  has  previously 
been  sterilised. 

The  neck  of  the  bottle  is  made  with  a  special  ridge,  into  which 
the  corrugated  edges  of  the  steel  cap  are  pressed,  thus  forming 


FlG.  78.—"  Crown 
Cork." 


FIG.  79A.  FIG.  79s. 

"  Crown  Cork  "  in  position  on  the  Bottle. 


a  joint  that  is  sufficient  to  resist  the  internal  pressure  of  the 
carbonated  liquid,  while  the  cork  disc,  being  held  tightly 
against  the  mouth  of  the  bottle,  prevents  the  escape  of  any  gas. 

The  construction  of  the  "Crown  cork"  and  the  method  of 
affixing  it  to  the  bottle  are  shown  in  the  accompanying  figures 
(Figs.  78  and  79).  The  same  system  may  also  be  employed  for 
securing  ordinary  corks  in  place  of  the  usual  method  of  wiring. 

The  contents  of  bottles  closed  by  means  of  the  sterilised 
discs  are  less  liable  to  bacterial  infection  from  the  stopper  than 
those  in  bottles  corked  in  the  usual  way,  or  closed  with  screw 
stoppers. 


160 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


Various     machines, 
worked    by    hand    or 

373 — flOBL  I  •!  steam  power,  are  made 
for  fixing  these 
stoppers  to  the  special 
bottles. 

Automatic  Machine 
for  Crown  Corks.— A 

rapid  method  of 
"  crowning  "  bottles 
has  been  devised  by 
the  Crown  Cork  Com- 
pany, one  of  whose 
automatic  machines  is 
here  shown  (Fig.  80). 
The  crowns  are  placed 
in  the  hopper,  378,  at 
the  top,  whence  they 
pass  downwards 
through  the  feeding 
chute,  353,  into  the 
guide  cup,  354,  the 
feed  being  controlled 
by  pressing  with  the 
foot  upon  the  treadle 
at  the  base  of  the 
machine. 

The  bottle  is  placed 
upon   the   rubber  bed 
of    the  rest,   341, 
which    is   so    ad- 
justed   that    the 
neck  comes  about 
a    quarter    of    an 
inch     below     the 
guide  cup. 
The    single    pressure    upon   the  treadle   then   releases  one 


FIG.  80. — Automatic  Machine  for  "  Crown  Corks. 


BOTTLES   AND   BOTTLING   MACHINERY 


161 


crown  from  the  chute,  and  locks  it  upon  the  bottle  by  a  down- 
ward stroke  of  the  head  of  the  machine. 

The  cylinder  below  the  bottle  rest  is  arranged  so  that  it 
will  offer  sufficient  resistance  to  the  stroke  of  the  head  to  allow 
the  crown  to  be  properly  locked,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is 
compensated  to  such  a  degree  as  to  prevent  the  bottle  being 
broken  in  the  process. 

The  machine  may  be  driven  by  a  belt  from  the  main  shaft, 
and  it  is  essential  that  it  should  revolve  at  the  correct  speed 
of  100  to  110  revolutions  per  minute.  The  bottles  intended  to 
be  crowned  in  this  machine  must  be  made  to  a  standard  size 
and  shape,  and  gauges  for  testing  them  and  for  ascertaining 
that  the  locking  rib  is  properly  formed  are  supplied  by  the 
makers  of  the  machine. 

Clasp  Stoppers. — Stoppers  which  fit  closely  into  the  mouth  of 
the  bottle,  where  they  are  kept  in  position  by  a  strong  clasp  of 
wire,  are  extensively  used  for  bottling 
sterilised  milk,  and  have  also  met 
with  some  favour  for  mineral  waters. 

Various  forms  of  these  clasps  are 
employed,  some  being  permanently 
attached  both  to  the  stopper  and  the 
bottle,  while  in  the  case  of  others  the 
clasp  is  removable. 

The  most  suitable  application  of 
the  patent  clasp  (Fig.  81)  is  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  wiring  down  the  corks  of 
soda-water  bottles.  The  clasp  is 
fixed  to  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  and 
is  intended  to  stay  there  after  the 
bottle  has  been  emptied  and  is  ready 
for  use  again.  The  wire  is  pulled 
over  the  top  of  the  cork  when  the 
bottle  is  charged,  and  holds  it  in  more  securely  than  the 
ordinary  method  of  wiring,  in  addition  to  the  process  being 
more  rapid  and  more  economical.  To  open  the  bottle  all  that 
is  necessary  is  to  push  the  clasp  aside  from  the  cork. 


FIG.  81.— Clasp  Stopper. 


M.w. 


M 


162 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


Automatic  Bottling  Machines.— The  last  five  years  have 
witnessed  the  general  adoption  of  automatic  bottling  machines 
into  mineral- water  factories,  and  it  is  in  this  direction  that  the 


QZ. 


FIG.  82.— The  "Eiley  "  Automatic  Eotary  Filling  Machine. 

chief  advance  of  recent  times  has  been  made  in  soda-water 
machinery. 

There   are   several  machines   of  the  kind   on  the   market. 


BOTTLES   AND   BOTTLING   MACHINERY          163 

One  that  has  met  with  a  large  measure  of  success  is  the  patent 
"  Auto  "  Rotary  Filling  Machine,  made  by  the  Riley  Manu- 
facturing Company,  one  of  the  patterns  of  which  is  shown  in 
Fig.  82. 

The  principle  upon  which  this  machine  is  based  is  that  of 
charging  the  upper  cylinder  with  the  carbonated  liquid,  and 
filling  the  bottles  automatically  in  turn,  after  creating  a 
counter-pressure.  Under  these  conditions  the  liquid  flows 
quietly  into  the  bottles,  which  are  filled  without  the  necessity 
of  "  snifting,"  with  its  inevitable  loss  of  gas  and  syrup. 

Since  the  gas  is  already  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the 
liquid  in  the  cylinder,  the  loss  of  pressure  in  transferring  it  to 
the  bottles  is  relatively  small,  and  soda  water  showing  a 
pressure  of,  say,  70  Ibs.  within  the  cylinder  will  show  a 
pressure  of  about  50  Ibs.  within  the  bottle. 

The  carbonated  liquid  coming  from  the  soda-water  machine 
enters  the  cylinder,  D,  through  the  valve,  A,  and  flows  into  the 
bottles  through  a  valve  connecting  with  a  series  of  tubes,  the 
handles  of  which,  E,  are  seen  at  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder. 
Each  bottle  is  placed  on  a  seat,  C,  carried  on  a  pan,  beneath 
which  is  a  gear  wheel,  which  is  worked  through  a  ratchet,  a 
wheel,  M,  connected  with  a  slide  block,  rod  and  pawl,  receiving 
their  motion  from  a  cam  plate,  the  shaft  of  which  is  at  X. 

The  forward  stroke  of  the  rod  compresses  the  spring,  P,  and 
this,  when  its  tension  is  released,  at  the  end  of  the  stroke, 
drives  the  rod  back  again,  for  the  process  to  be  repeated. 
With  each  stroke  of  the  machine  the  whole  of  the  bottles  are 
moved  a  stage  forward  in  their  circuit  round  the  cylinder, 
while  the  bottle  immediately  in  front  of  the  bottling  valve  is 
pushed  forward  by  the  action  of  the  corresponding  lever 
slide,  J,  which  is  put  in  motion  by  mechanism  also  connected 
with  the  cam  plate.  The  bottle  fits  tightly  into  the  bell-mouth, 
E,  during  the  filling,  the  air  expelled  by  the  carbon  dioxide 
escaping  through  the  valve,  C3,  at  the  top  of  the  cylinder. 

Each  bottle,  when  charged  with  the  liquid,  is  removed  by 
hand  and  its  stopper  or  cork  inserted — all  this  without  material 
loss  of  pressure. 

The  rotation  of  the  bottles  is  contingent  upon  the  regular 

M  3 


164      MINEHAL  AND  AEEATED  WATERS 

supply  being  maintained,  the  omission  of  a  single  bottle  through 
carelessness  bringing  them  all  to  a  standstill  at  once.  At  the 
same  time,  this  stoppage  does  not  cause  the  bottle  in  process 
of  filling  to  overflow,  the  supply  of  liquid  being  automatically 
cut  off  at  a  definite  level. 

This  machine  is  made  in  three  sizes,  to  take  nine,  twelve  or 
eighteen  bottles.  With  the  smallest  size  about  60  dozen  bottles 
per  hour  may  be  charged,  while  the  larger  sizes  will  give  an 
output  of  100  to  140  dozen  bottles  per  hour,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  liquid  being  bottled. 

A  screen,  S,  is  put  over  the  bottles  while  the  machine  is 
working,  and  in  the  event  of  one  of  the  bottles  breaking,  the 
supply  of  liquid  to  the  cylinder  may  be  cut  off  at  once,  by 
means  of  the  handle,  C2. 

The  air  expelled  from  the  bottles,  prior  to  filling,  collects 
above  the  liquid  in  the  feeding  cylinder,  and  when  a  certain 
pressure  is  reached  it  is  automatically  discharged  through  a 
valve,  Cj,  at  the  top.  The  amount  of  gas  simultaneously 
blown  off  with  this  air  is  negligible,  and  the  saving  in  gas 
over  machines  in  which  the  air  is  removed  from  the  bottles  by 
"  snifting  "  works  out  in  practice  at  about  25  per  cent. 

Every  description  of  bottle  may  be  charged  upon  this 
machine;  including  the  various  patent  varieties,  such  as  Codd's 
bottles  (p.  154),  and  those  stoppered  by  the  "  Crown  Cork  " 
system  (p.  159). 

The  method  of  lubrication  has  been  simplified  to  a  remark- 
able degree,  the  whole  of  the  machinery  being  oiled  by  pouring 
oil  into  the  two  lubricators,  X,  whence  it  is  distributed  to  the 
respective  parts  beneath,  while  solid  grease  lubricators  are 
provided  for  the  crank  and  pawl. 

The  "Thistle"  Filler. — Another  type  of  machine  which 
rapidly  charges  the  bottles  without  the  necessity  of  "  snifting  " 
is  the  "Thistle  "  Filler,  various  forms  of  which  are  made  by 
Messrs.  Hay  ward-Tyler  &  Co. 

The  principle  upon  which  this  machine  is  based  is  that  of 
putting  the  bottles,  before  filling,  in  connection  with  "  air- 
chambers,"  from  which  the  air  has  been  previously  exhausted. 


BOTTLES  AND  BOTTLING  MACHINERY 


165 


The  air  in  the  bottles  is  drawn  off  into  this  vacuum,  so  that  on 
then  introducing  the  carbonated  liquid  coming  from  the  soda- 
water  machine  the  bottles  are  filled  quietly,  without  loss  of 
either  gas  or  syrup. 

One  of  these  machines,  adapted  for  charging  twelve  bottles, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  83.  The  air  cylinders,  which  are  shown  at  the 
top  of  the  machine,  are 
first  screwed  into  their 
places,  and  the  bottles 
placed  in  the  filling 
heads.  The  machine 
revolves,  and  as  the 
bottles  pass  a  certain 
point  a  filling  valve  is 
opened  and  the  car- 
bonated liquid  is  intro- 
duced to  a  height  pre- 
viously arranged.  As 
soon  as  the  full  number 
of  bottles  has  been 
placed  in  the  machine, 
the  first  bottle  is  fully 
charged,  and  is  ready  to 
be  withdrawn  to  be 
corked  or  stoppered, 
while  its  place  is  taken 
by  another  bottle. 

As  in  the  case  of  the 
Riley  machine  pre- 
viously described,  the 
loss  in  pressure  during  the  process  of  corking  is  negligible,  and 
excellent  results  may  be  obtained  by  working  at  a  pressure  of 
about  80  Ibs. 

The  height  to  which  the  bottles  are  filled  is  regulated  by 
means  of  handles  attached  to  the  air  cylinders,  these  being 
raised  or  lowered  according  to  the  size  of  the  bottles  to  be  filled 
and  the  final  pressure  desired. 

In  the  smaller  machines,  worked  by  hand,  the  bottles  are 


FIG.  83.— Scott's  Patent  "  Thistle  "  Filler. 


166      MINEKAL  AND  AEEATED  WATERS 

brought  into  position  by  pressing  down  handles  in  front  of  each 
filling  head,  but  in  the  power  machines  this  is  done 
automatically. 

With  the  aid  of  these  machines,  which  when  worked  by  two 
operators  will  charge  about  120  dozen  bottles  per  hour,  the 
soda  water  will  show  more  perfect  aeration  than  in  the  case  of 
products  carbonated  at  much  higher  pressures  by  the  older  types 
of  machines. 

On  applying  a  pressure  gauge  to  a  freshly  carbonated  bottle 
from  either  this  machine  or  Riley's  machine  (p.  162),  working 
at  a  pressure  of  about  80  Ibs.,  the  needle  upon  the  dial  will  at 
first  indicate  but  little  pressure,  but  on  shaking  the  bottle  to 
liberate  the  dissolved  gas  the  needle  will  immediately  rush 
upwards,  until  a  pressure  of  over  60  Ibs.  is  shown. 

This  may  be  taken  as  representing  the  average  pressure  of 
the  liquid  within  the  bottles. 

The  Syphon. — The  idea  of  the  syphon  now  universally 
employed  for  mineral  waters  appears  to  have  originated  with 
Deleuze  and  Dutilleul,  who  in  1829  took  out  a  patent  in  France 
for  a  device  for  emptying  ordinary  corked  bottles.  A  tube 
terminating  at  one  end  in  a  point  was  passed  through  the  cork 
nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  This  tube  was  closed  by  a 
valve  provided  with  a  lever,  and  by  inverting  the  bottle  and 
pressing  upon  the  lever,  the  valve  was  opened  and  the  liquid  was 
expelled  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas. 

Then,  in  1837,  Savaresse  patented  a  syphon,  the  head  of 
which  was  affixed  to  the  neck  of  the  bottle  instead  of  being 
connected  with  a  cork.  The  syphon  of  Savaresse,  which  he 
named  "  Perpigna,"  was  soon  imitated  and  improved  upon  in 
detail  by  numerous  inventors,  but  the  principle  underlying  all 
these  forms  of  bottles  was  practically  the  same.  In  each  case 
the  aerated  liquid  was  kept  in  the  bottle  by  the  action  of  a 
valve,  and  on  releasing  this  by  pressing  upon  a  lever  outside, 
the  liquid  was  expelled  by  the  force  of  the  gas. 

The  main  differences  in  the  various  modifications  lay  in  the 
mechanism  by  means  of  which  the  valve  was  opened  and  auto- 
matically closed  again  on  removing  the  pressure  from  the  lever. 


BOTTLES  AND  BOTTLING  MACHINERY 


167 


Savaresse's  Syphon. — The  special  form  of  "vase"  described 

in  the  patent  taken  out  in  1838  by  Miles  Berry  on  behalf  of 

Savaresse  deserves  special  description.     In  its  essential  details 

this   was   the   syphon   as   we   know  it 

to-day.     It    consisted    of   a   vessel    of 

metal,  earthenware,  or   glass,  into  the 

neck  of  which  was  fitted  and  secured 

by  sealing-wax  a  spout  of  the  construc- 
tion shown  in  Fig.   84.      By    pressing 

the  lever,  b,  the  two  teeth  inside,  which 

fitted  into  corresponding  teeth,  raised  a 

piston,  c,    that  was  otherwise  pressed 

down  by  the  coiled  spring  at  the  top, 

capable    of    being    tightened    by    the 

screw,  d.     This  allowed  the   liquid  to 

escape   from   the   tap,   a,    so    long    as 

pressure  was  applied  to  the  lever. 

In  charging  this  vessel  all  that  was 

necessary  was  to  apply  the  tap  to  the 

nozzle  of  a  conical  tube  communicating 

with  the  cylinder  (see  p.  149)  and  to  depress  the  lever,  in  the 

same  way  as  for  emptying  the  syphon  (Fig.  85).      The  atmc- 

spheric  air  in  the  bottle 
was  expelled  during 
filling  through  a  small 
opening,  e,  near  the  top, 
which  was  afterwards 
secured  by  a  screw 
stopper.  This  opening 
was  also  used  for  the 
introduction  of  syrups,  as 
in  the  modern  method  of 
making  lemonade. 


FIG.  84. — Savaresse's 
Syphon  Tube.    1838. 


FIG.  85. — Savaresse's  Syphon. 


Modern  Syphons. — The 

mechanism  of  two  forms 

of   syphon    are    shown  in  the   accompanying  figures,  which 
represent  long-handled  and  short-handled  apparatus. 


168 


MINERAL  AND  AEKATED  WATERS 


ElG.  86. — Mechanism  of  Syphon 
with  Long  Lever. 


In  the  first  of  these  (Fig.  86)  the  pressure  applied  to  the 

lever,  C,  raises  the  piston-valve,  overcoming  the  force  of  the 

spring  above.     This  opens   the   communication   between  the 

chamber,  and  the  outlet 
tube,  R,  so  that  the  soda 
water  is  forced  out  by  its 
own  pressure.  But  as  soon 
as  the  hand  is  removed 
from  the  lever  the  valve  is 
forced  back  into  position 
by  the  action  of  the  spring, 
an  air-tight  joint  being 
ensured  by  rubber-fittings, 
and  the  flow  instantly 
stops.  Rubber  joints  are 
also  provided  to  prevent 
the  soda  water  gaming 
access  to  the  mechanism. 
In  the  other  type  of 

syphon  (Fig.  87)  the  action  of  the  short  lever,  C,  forces  down 

a  valve  which  is  mounted  on  a  rod  and  meanwhile  compresses 

the  spring.    The  soda  water 

can  then  pass  through  the 

chamber  and  the  openings 

above  it  into  the  tube,  R. 

As   soon    as    the    pressure 

is  withdrawn  from   C   the 

rod  and  the  valve  rise  at 

once,    and   the   supply   of 

liquid   is   cut    off,    at    the 

points  where  rubber  joints 

are  fitted. 

It  will  be  seen  from  this 

description   that  the  term 

"syphon"   is   a  misnomer,          FIG.  87.— Mechanism  of  Syphon 

the    liquid    being  expelled  with  Short  Lever. 

not  by  the  action  of  a  siphon  tube,   but  by  the  pressure   of 

the  dissolved  gas. 


BOTTLES  AND   BOTTLING    MACHINERY          169 

Syphon-Filling  Machines. — An  early  machine  devised  by 
Hayward-Tyler  &  Co.  for  charging  syphons  is  shown  in  Fig.  88. 
By  the  action  of  the  treadle  at  the  bottom,  the  syphon,  which 
was  put  into  the  machine  upside  down,  was  raised  until  its 
nozzle  was  pressed  against  a  nipple,  through  which  the  soda 
water  was  introduced  from  the  carbonating  apparatus.  The 
handle  of  the  syphon  was  next  pressed  up  by  means  of  the 
lever  on  the  left  of  the  machine, 
and  on  then  turning  the  handle 
on  the  right  the  liquid  rushed  into 
the  bottle,  while  the  air  escaped 
through  a  valve  by  the  side  of  the 
nipple,  and  the  pressure  within  the 
bottle  was  thus  also  regulated.  An 
iron  guard  with  a  wire  grating 
was  latched  in  front  of  the  syphon 
during  the  filling,  as  a  protection 
against  possible  explosions. 

Hayward-Tyler's  Syphon-Filling 
Machine. — The  latest  pattern  of 
this  machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  89. 
The  syphon  is  put  with  its  head 
resting  on  the  support,  a,  and  is 
kept  in  position  by  pressure  of  the 
foot  on  the  treadle,  A. 

The  supply  of  syrup  is  con- 
trolled by  the  handle,  C,  of  the 
syrup  pump,  while  the  pin,  D, 
regulates  the  stroke  of  this  pump,  FlG' 
and  consequently  the  amount  of 
syrup  introduced.  The  lever  of  the  syphon  rests  upon  the  end 
of  the  lever,  B,  and  by  lowering  the  handle  of  this  the  valve  of 
the  syphon  is  opened.  The  soda  water  is  admitted  through 
the  pipe,  G,  the  valve  of  which  is  controlled  by  the  handle  E. 
The  same  handle  is  also  used  to  work  the  snift  valves  to  expel 
the  air  from  the  syphons.  The  syrup  pump  is  connected  with 
the  syrup  tank  by  means  of  the  pipe.  F. 


170 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


Syphons  can  be  charged  by  this  machine  at  the  rate  of  about 
20  dozen  per  hour. 

Ferguson's  Double  Syphon  Filler. — From  40  to  45  dozen 
syphons  per  hour  may  be  charged  by  means  of  this  machine, 
which  is  worked  by  hand  (Fig.  90). 

An  empty  syphon  is  placed  in  the  right-hand  filler  at  B, 
where  it  is  kept  in  position  by  raising  the  handle,  A,  which 
simultaneously  opens  the  valve  admitting  the  aerated  water. 
Meanwhile  a  second  syphon  is  placed  in  the  left-hand  filler, 
and  as  soon  as  it  is  in  position  the  right- 
hand  syphon  is  ready  for  snifting.  This 
is  done  by  moving  the  handle,  F,  down  to 
the  horizontal  position  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  G,  and  immediately  raising 
it  again. 

The  process  thus  continues  alternately, 
each  syphon  being  removed  as  soon  as  it 
is  charged,  and  replaced  by  another 
empty  one. 

During  the  filling  a  guard,  E,  falls  auto- 
matically and  covers  the  syphon  as  is 
shown  at  H.  The  pipe  bringing  the  aerated 
water  from  the  cylinder  is  indicated  by  C, 
while  J  K  show  the  duplicate  arrangements 
for  holding  the  syphons  in  position  and 
opening  the  supply-valve  connected  with 
the  pipe,  C,  these  being  controlled  by  the  lever,  L. 

To  prevent  loss  of  gas  during  snifting  a  special  snifting 
chamber  is  provided,  so  that  the  syphons  may  be  charged  at 
a  low  pressure.  A  saving  of  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  gas  is  thus 
effected. 


FIG.  89.— Hayward- 
Tyler's       Syphon- 
Machine. 


Counter-Pressure  Chamber  for  Syphons. — The  principle  of 
creating  a  back  pressure  in  the  bottles,  and  thus  enabling  the 
charging  to  be  done  at  low  pressures,  has  been  adopted  in 
various  bottling  machines  described  on  the  preceding  pages, 
such  as,  for  instance,  Riley's  "  Auto  "  Rotary  Machine. 


BOTTLES   AND   BOTTLING   MACHINERY         171 


These  machines  are  only  suitable  for  filling  ordinary  bottles, 
while  for  charging  syphons  a  special  machine  must  be  used. 

Some  of  the  latter  have,  as  an  essential  part,  a  special  snifting 
chamber,  as  was  mentioned  in  the  case  of  Ferguson's  Syphon 
Bottling  Machine  described  on  the  preceding  page. 

In  order  to  convert  any  ordinary  hand  or  power  syphon- 
filling  machine  into  a  counter- 
pressure  machine,  and  thus 
prevent  the  loss  of  gas  that 
ordinarily  takes  place,  a 
special  snifting  chamber,  such 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  91,  is  fixed 
either  upon  the  machine,  or 
upon  a  separate  stand  con- 
nected with  the  machine  by 
means  of  tubes. 

The  Portable  Cylinder  or 
Fountain. — Although  not  so 
popular  in  this  country  as  in 
America  and  South  Africa,  the 
portable  cylinder  is  frequently 
used  here  as  a  convenient 
method  of  distribut- 
ing aerated  liquids. 

The    methods    of    charging 
these    cylinders    directly    by 
generators,  by  the  soda-water  pIG.  90.— Ferguson's  Double  Syphon 
machine  or  by  tube  gas  have  Filler. 

already  been  described  (Chapter  VIII.),  and  the  way  in  which 
they  are  used  will  be  seen  by  reference  to  the  accompanying 
illustration  (Fig.  92),  which  shows  one  of  Hayward-Tyler's 
cylinders  attached  to  a  draught  column  on  a  counter. 

The  cylinder,  which  has  a  capacity  of  8  gallons,  is  made  of 
copper  lined  on  the  inside  with  pure  tin,  and  is  constructed  in 
two  parts,  bolted  together  so  that  it  may  easily  be  opened  and 
cleaned. 

This  ought  to  be  done  at  regular  intervals,  to  see  that  the 


172      MINERAL  AND  AEKATED  WATERS 

tin  lining  of  the  cylinder  is  sound,  and  that  the  whole  of  the 
inside  (as  well  as  the  connecting  pipes)  is  absolutely  clean. 

The  soda  water  passes  upwards  into  the  column  through 
a  coil  of  tin  pipe  surrounded  by  ice  in  the  ice  tank,  and 
enters  the  glass  globe,  E,  at  the  top.  The  air  is  expelled  by  a 
snifting  valve,  and  the  soda  water  may  then  be  drawn  off 
quietly  through  the  tap,  F. 

The  Sparklet  System.  —  The 
main  objection  to  the  use  of 
gasogenes  in  which  water  is  aerated 
by  the  interaction  of  tartaric  acid 
and  sodium  carbonate  is  that  the 
liquid  remains  charged  with  salt 
(sodium  tartrate),  which  in  the  case 
of  certain  individuals  has  a  bad 
effect  upon  the  digestion. 

The  difficulty  of  aerating  a  liquid 
so  as  to  introduce  nothing  but 
carbon  dioxide  has  been  overcome 
in  a  very  ingenious  manner  in  the 
Sparklet  system. 

A  protected  syphon  of  special 
construction  is  used,  having  upon 
its  head  at  the  side  an  opening  on 
to  which  can  be  screwed  a  com- 
pressor. 

The  liquefied  gas  is  supplied  in 

FIG.  Ql^Counter-Pressure  sma11  pear-shaped  receptacles,  each 
Chamber.  of  which  contains  the  right  quantity 

to  aerate  the  liquid  in  the  syphon. 

One  of  these  is  placed  in  the  bed  of  the  compressor,  which  is 
then  screwed  down  hard,  and  by  its  action  brings  the  cap,  at 
the  narrow  end  of  the  gas  bomb,  in  contact  with  a  hollow 
needle  fitted  by  means  of  a  rubber  washer  into  the  side  opening. 
The  cap  is  pierced,  and  the  carbon  dioxide,  expanding,  is  forced 
through  the  hollow  needle  into  the  syphon,  the  compressor 
which  has  been  screwed  down  meanwhile  forming  a  tight  joint 
at  the  side  opening. 


BOTTLES   AND   BOTTLING   MACHINERY 


173 


It  then  only  remains  to  shake  the  syphon  to  complete  the 
aeration,  and  the  carbonated  liquid  may  then  be  drawn  off 
by  pressing  on  the  lever  as  in  the  case  of  ordinary  syphons. 

Bottle-Washing  Machinery. — The  method  of  cleaning  the 
returned  empty  bottles  is  of  great  im- 
portance, since  upon  its  efficiency  largely 
depends  the  purity  and  keeping  qualities 
of  the  mineral  waters  subsequently 
placed  in  them. 

Much  of  the  contamination  and 
resulting  bacteriological  impurity  of 
certain  bottles  of  soda  water  has  been 
traced,  not  to  any  want  of  purity  in 
the  water  itself,  but  to  the  paste  from 
the  old  labels,  which  have  been  soaked 
off  in  the  washing  tank.  If  the  bottles 
have  not  been  rinsed  in  an  effective 
manner,  traces  of  this  paste,  upon 
which  bacteria  readily  develop,  may 
remain  and  infect  the  soda  water. 

For  this  reason  the  preliminary 
soaking  of  the  bottles  in  hot  water 
ought  to  be  done  in  a  tank  that  is  kept 
quite  distinct  from  the  actual  washing 
of  the  bottles.  After  having  had  their 
old  labels  removed,  the  bottles  are  trans- 
ferred to  the  washing  tanks.  Several 
types  of  these  are  on  the  market,  but 
the  general  principle  followed  is  to  soak 
the  bottles  in  partitioned  trays,  which 
are  made  to  revolve  slowly  through  the 
tank,  then  to  brush  them  inside  by  FIG.  92.—  Portable  Cylinder 
means  of  revolving  brushes,  and 

finally  to  place  them  mouth  downwards  in  metal  supports, 
and  to  rinse  them  by  injecting  a  powerful  jet  of  water,  the  final 
rinsing  being  given  by  water  of  known  purity,  the  same  as  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  soda  water  itself. 


174      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

A  washing  machine  specially  constructed  for  Messrs.  Beaufoy 
&  Co.,  by  Messrs.  Wickham  &  Sons,  of  Ware,  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  figure  (Fig.  93). 


FIG. (93. — Wickham's  Washing  Machine. 

The  body  of  the  tanks  is  made  of  wood,  but  is  completely 
lined  with  sheet  copper  as  a  safeguard  against  bacterial 
infection  from  the  wood. 


FIG.  94.— Wickham's  Patent  Eevolving  Einser. 


BOTTLES   AND   BOTTLING   MACHINERY 


175 


The  revolving  wire  trays  in  which  the  bottles  are  placed 
are  seen  projecting  above  the  two  tanks,  the  revolving  brushes 
and  the  rinsers  for  the  first  rinsing  are  fixed  between  the  two 
tanks,  while  after  the  bottles  have  passed  through  clean  water 
in  the  second  tank,  they  are  given  their  final  rinsing  imme- 
diately before  being  filled  again,  with  a  strong  jet  of  water 


FIG.  95. — Wickham's  Patent  Rinser 
with  Bottle  in  Position. 


FIG.  96.— Old-fashioned  Type 
of  Einser. 


drawn  straight  from  the  rising  main  of  an  artesian  well  which 
yields  a  perfectly  pure  supply. 

The  bottle  rinsers  are  shown  on  a  larger  scale  in  Fig.  94,  and 
the  method  in  which  the  bottles  are  supported  in  the  gun- 
metal  guides  will  be  understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  95.  The 
bottles  are  held  in  a  perfectly  upright  position,  and  the  water 
from  the  jet  is  therefore  distributed  evenly  over  the  whole  of 


176 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


the  interior,  ensuring  a  thorough  rinsing.  In  the  old-fashioned 
type  of  rinser  (Fig.  96)  the  spiggot  nearly  closed  the  mouth  of 
the  bottle  and  prevented  particles  of  cork  or  dirt  from  being 
washed  out. 

Another  form  of  washing  machine  is  shown  in  Fig.  97, 
which  represents  one  of  Messrs.  Hay  ward-Tyler  &  Co.'s 
"  Automatic  "  Upright  Machines. 


FIG.  97. — Hayward-Tj-ler's  "Automatic  "  Upright  Washing  Machine. 

The  bottles  are  placed  in  the  trays,  which  revolve  in  the  tank 
on  the  left,  and  there  receive  a  soaking,  which  effects  a  pre- 
liminary cleansing  and  removes  the  labels,  the  latter  being 
retained  by  means  of  a  guard. 

The  bottles  are  then  applied  to  the  revolving  brushes  by 
two  persons,  one  working  on  each  side  of  the  machine,  and  are 
finally  given  a  thorough  rinsing  on  the  rinsers  on  the  right. 
The  rack  above  is  an  overhead  slide,  upon  which  the  boxes 
are  placed  after  emptying,  so  that  by  merely  pushing  them 


BOTTLES  AND  BOTTLING  MACHINERY 


177 


along  to  the  other  end  they  are  ready  to  be  taken  down  and 
re-filled  with  rinsed  bottles. 

By  means  of  this  machine,  the  tank  of  which  is  of  wood  or 
of  metal,  bottles  are  cleaned  inside  and  out  and  rinsed  at  the 
rate  of  100  to  150  dozen  per  hour,  according  to  the  kind  of 
'bottle.  The  objection  to  its  use  in  this  way  is  that  no  means 
are  provided  for  the  preliminary  soaking  of  the  bottles  to  remove 
the  labels,  and  that  the  rinsing  given  is,  therefore,  not  sufficient 
to  prevent  all  risk  of  bacterial  infection  from  the  old  paste. 


FIG.  98.— Eiley's  "Wheel  "  Washing  Machine. 


It  ought,  therefore,  to  be  used  in  conjunction  with  another 
tank.  For  the  same  reason  the  wooden  tank  is  objectionable, 
and  only  the  form  with  a  tank  of  metal  is  really  suitable  for 
the  mineral- water  factory. 

"  Wheel "  Washers. — Several  forms  of  wheel  washers  are 
made  by  the  manufacturers  of  mineral-water  machinery,  and 
one  of  these,  made  by  the  Riley  Manufacturing  Company,  is 
represented  in  Fig.  98. 

The  bottles  to  be  cleaned  are  placed  in  the  cells,  and  their 
M.W.  N 


178     MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATEBS 

weight  causes  a  slow  revolution  of  the  wheel,  the  bottles  being 
meanwhile  held  in  position  by  a  grid.  From  36  to  84  dozen 
bottles  may  thus  be  soaked  at  one  charge,  according  to  size  of 
the  wheel,  and  the  period  of  soaking  is  longer  than  is  possible 
with  horizontal  trays. 

After  soaking,  the  bottles  are  put  upon  the  brushes,  and  then 
transferred  to  the  rinsers.  As  in  the  case  of  the  last  machine 
described,  this  washer  ought  always  to  be  used  in  conjunction 
with  a  tank  in  which  the  bottles  have  had  a  preliminary 
washing  to  remove  the  old  labels  and  stale  paste. 


FJG.  99. — Eiley's  Turbine  Brasher. 

Riley's  Turbine  Br  usher. — A  convenient  type  of  brusher  is 
made  by  the  Riley  Manufacturing  Company,  the  special  advan- 
tages of  which  are  that  it  runs  silently,  may  be  driven  either 
by  steam  or  water,  and  can  be  bolted  down  over  any  washing 
tank  (Fig.  99). 

For  cleaning  Codd's  bottles  a  special  form  of  brush,  revolving 
in  a  stationary  tube,  is  used  to  prevent  jamming  by  the  movable 
marble. 


CHAPTER   X 
THE  MAKING  OF  GINGER  BEER 

BREWED  ginger  beer,  which  at  first  was  one  of  the  products 
of  the  housewife,  who  prepared  it  from  her  old  family  recipe, 
has  now  become  an  important  article  of  manufacture  in  the 
mineral -water  factory. 

The  real  "  home-brewed  "  ginger  beer,  which  may  still  be 
met  with  in  country  houses,  is  usually  a  somewhat  acid  liquid 
containing  a  high  percentage  of  spirit,  since  no  method  is  used 
to  check  the  combined  alcoholic  and  acetic  fermentations.  To 
be  really  palatable  it  must  be  drunk  soon  after  brewing  and 
while  it  still  contains  unfermented  sugar. 

From  time  to  time  attempts  have  been  made  by  mineral- 
water  manufacturers  to  produce  a  ginger  beer  without 
fermentation,  by  aerating  a  solution  containing  sugar,  tartaric 
acid,  and  a  decoction  of  ginger,  but  none  of  these  preparations 
has  the  flavour  of  the  brewed  beer  they  are  intended  to  imitate. 

Hence  during  the  last  three-quarters  of  a  century  the 
brewing  of  ginger  beer  has  gradually  become  a  separate  branch 
of  the  industry,  and  special  plant  has  been  devised  so  as  to 
obtain  constant  results  and  produce  a  beer  that  will  keep  well 
for  a  considerable  time  after  bottling. 

Outline  of  Process  of  Manufacture. — Briefly  outlined,  the 
process  of  manufacturing  ginger  beer  is  to  make  an  infusion  of 
crushed  ginger  with  boiling  water,  to  add  sugar  and  tartaric 
acid,  and  to  cause  the  liquid  to  ferment  either  by  exposure  to 
the  atmosphere  or  by  the  addition  of  a  suitable  yeast.  After 
standing  for  some  hours  the  ginger  beer  is  bottled  and  kept 
for  a  fortnight  or  more  to  mature  before  being  sent  out  into 
the  trade. 

N2 


180 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


The  general  arrangement  of  the  plant  used  for  the  purpose  is 
shown  in  Fig.  100. 

The  ginger  after  being  bruised  between  rollers  is  placed  in 
the  infusion  tank,  where  it  is  extracted  for  several  hours  with 
two  or  three  charges  of  boiling  water,  from  the  hot-water  tank 
above.  The  infusions  are  drawn  off  through  strainers  in  this 
tank  into  another  large  wooden  tank,  where  they  are  sweetened 
with  the  weighed  quantity  of  sugar,  after  which  the  solution 
is  passed  through  a  refrigerator,  which  cools  it  down  to  a 
temperature  of  between  60°  and  70°  F. 

The  fermenting  vessels  in  which  the  inoculation  with  yeast 


FIG.  100. — Eiley's  Ginger  Beer  Brewing  Plant. 

takes  place  are  frequently  made  of  wood,  but  slate  is  much  to 
be  preferred  for  the  purpose,  as  it  can  be  kept  absolutely  clean 
more  easily,  and  does  not,  as  in  the  case  of  wooden  vessels, 
form  "  nests  "  (due  to  initial  decay  of  the  wood  fibre),  which 
can  harbour  bacteria  or  undesirable  wild  yeasts. 

Fermentation. — In  many  factories  the  fermentation  of  the 
beer  is  started  by  the  action  of  one  or  more  species  of  the 
yeasts  floating  in  the  air  ;  but  the  method  is  unreliable,  and 
while  it  may  give  satisfactory  results  for  months  at  a  time, 


THE    MAKING   OF    GINGER   BEER  181 

trouble  is  certain  to  occur  sooner  or  later,  through  the  action 
of  some  of  the  objectionable  wild  yeasts. 

The  particular  wild  yeast,  which  normally  selects  a  sweetened 
infusion  of  ginger  as  a  suitable  medium  for  its  growth,  occurs 
in  a  formation  popularly  known  as  the  "  ginger-beer  plant," 
from  the  fact  of  its  forming  a  gelatinous  envelope  analogous  to 
that  produced  by  acetic  bacteria  and  the  organisms  that  cause 
the  so-called  "  mucinous  fermentation." 

This  "  plant  "  affords  a  remarkable  example  of  the  associa- 
tion of  two  micro-organisms  working  upon  the  same  medium 
and  mutually  assisting  in  each  other's  growth  and  vitality — 
or,  to  use  the  technical  term,  they  stand  towards  each  other  in 
symbiotic  relationship. 

The  yeast  is  a  pear-shaped  organism  termed  Saccharomyces 
pyriformis,  while  its  accompanying  bacterium  is  B.  vermiforme, 
which  owes  its  name  to  a  curious  worm-shaped  envelope 
surrounding  the  cells. 

Ward  succeeded  in  artificially  reconstructing  the  ginger-beer 
plant  from  its  two  component  organisms,  and  found  that  it 
formed  a  curious  horn-like  mass  when  dried,  in  which  state  it 
could  be  stored  without  losing  its  vitality. 

The  main  products  formed  during  the  fermentation  are 
carbon  dioxide,  lactic  acid,  and  alcohol,  with  traces  of  acetic 
acid. 

From  what  has  been  said  above  it  is  obvious  that  it  is  better 
to  select  a  yeast  for  the  fermentation  rather  than  to  trust  to 
luck,  and  for  this  purpose  a  selected  distiller's  yeast  will  often 
be  found  suitable.  It  is  necessary  to  choose  one  that  does  not 
ferment  the  sugar  too  briskly  and  that  does  not  increase  too 
rapidly. 

In  the  first  case  the  proportion  of  alcohol  formed  may  exceed 
the  amount  permitted  by  the  Excise  authorities,  while  in  the 
second  case  the  deposit  of  yeast  cells  at  the  bottom  of  the 
bottle  is  excessive  and  complaints  may  arise.  This  is  parti- 
cularly the  case  with  the  ginger  beer  sent  out  in  clear  glass 
bottles,  which,  unlike  the  old-fashioned  stone  bottles,  allow  the 
amount  of  deposit  to  be  seen. 

The  proportion  of  yeast  to  be  added  is  also  a  matter  of 


182      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

importance,  and  the  quantity  must  be  varied  according  to  the 
time  of  the  year,  the  weather,  and  the  length  of  time  that  the 
beer  is  likely  to  be  kept  before  consumption. 

As  a  rule,  from  about  half  an  ounce  to  four  ounces  of  yeast  is 
required  for  "  pitching  "  a  brew  of  about  300  gallons,  the 
proportion  being  settled  from  experience  of  results  obtained 
both  during  summer  and  winter  with  the  yeast  in  question. 

Usually  the  amount  of  alcohol  produced  during  the  limited 
fermentation  is  less  than  2  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit,  and  to  this 
proportion  no  exception  is  taken  by  the  Excise.  Sometimes, 
however,  when  a  suitable  yeast  has  not  been  used,  the  fermen- 
tation proceeds  far  beyond  this  point,  and  the  "  non-alcoholic  " 
ginger  beer  may  then  contain  more  alcohol  than  an  ordinary 
beer. 

For  example,  in  certain  bottles  of  ginger  beer  examined 
by  the  writer  the  whole  of  the  sugar  has  been  fermented 
and  the  liquid  has  contained  from  10  to  12  per  cent,  of  proof 
spirit. 

When  the  fermentation  has  not  proceeded  to  this  excessive 
degree  only  a  relatively  small  pressure  is  developed  within  the 
bottles.  As  a  rule,  a  pressure  gauge  passed  through  the  cork 
after  the  ginger  beer  has  matured  for  about  a  fortnight  will 
show  a  pressure  of  8  to  10  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch  ;  but  where 
the  fermentation  has  not  stopped  at  the  desired  point,  a  much 
higher  pressure,  in  some  instances  exceeding  50  Ibs.,  is  produced 
within  the  bottle. 

This  affords  the  explanation  of  the  cracking  of  the  stoneware 
bottles,  which  gives  trouble  to  the  manufacturer  who  does  not 
take  into  consideration  the  factors  described.  It  is  particularly 
liable  to  happen  in  the  case  of  ginger  beer  made  to  ferment 
spontaneously. 

Wild  Yeasts. — The  so-called  "  wild  yeasts  "  are  given  their 
name  to  distinguish  them  from  the  cultivated  species  used  in 
the  breweries,  the  separation  of  which  in  a  pure  form  originated 
with  Dr.  E.  C.  Hansen,  of  Copenhagen.  These  wild  yeasts  are 
widely  distributed  and  appear  to  develop  normally  upon  the 
outside  of  fruit  where  they  produce  the  bloom,  while  at  other 


THE    MAKINd    OF    (JINGER   BEER 


18B 


H|P^^"^   i^^^^B 


S. 


film. 

FIG.  101. 


x  1,000 


times  they  remain  quiescent  in  the  soil  until  blown  by  the  wind 
or  carried  by  insects  on  to  a  suitable  culture  medium. 

It  is  now  thirty  years 
since  Hansen  traced  the 
turbidity  and  the  bitter 
flavour  produced  in  cer- 
tain beer  to  the  action 
of  definite  species  of 
these  wild  yeasts,  and 
showed  that  when  effi- 
cient precautions  had 
been  taken  to  prevent 
the  access  and  growth  of 
these,  and  the  wort  had 
been  fermented  with 
pure  cultures  of  a  normal 
yeast,  there  was  no 
further  difficulty. 

Among  these  organ- 
isms, which  are  now  known  to  be  undesirable  visitors  to  the 

fermenting  vats,  may 
be  mentioned  Hansen's 
Saccharomyces  cllipso- 
ideus  II.,  which  causes 
a  turbidity,  and 
Saccharomyces  Pastor- 
ianus  I.,  to  the  action 
of  which  bitter  flavours 
are  frequently  due. 
Two  other  species  which 
cause  trouble  by  pro- 
ducing a  fruity  odour 
and  taste  in  the  beer, 
are  known  as  S.  anom- 
alus  (Fig.  101)  and  8. 
apiculatus  (Figs.  102, 
103).1 

1  These  photographs  of  wild  yeasts  are  reproduced  here  by  the  kind  permission 
of  Mr  A  C.  Chapman. 


apiculatus  (Schweitz). 
FIG.  102. 


1,000. 


184      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

The  first  of  these  produces  spores  of  a  peculiar  shape,  while 
the  second  may  be  recognised  by  the  characteristic  ovoid 
form  of  its  cells,  which  appear  like  a  number  of  connected 
lemons.  Budding  takes  place  at  the  pointed  end  of  the  cell, 
and  for  some  time  the  new  cell  retains  the  appearance  of  an 
ordinary  yeast  cell. 

Since  ginger  beer  resembles  beer  in  being  made  by  the  action 
of  yeast,  it  too  is  liable  to  be  infected  by  wild  yeasts,  and  to 
acquire  an  undesirable  flavour. 

Thus,  within  the   author's  experience,  successive  brews  of 

ginger  beer,  which  had  a 

••I^HP^^^^^^^^HHHH      perfectly  normal  flavour 

when  freshly  brewed, 
gradually  acquired  a  pro- 
nounced apple  flavour 
when  kept  for  some  time 
in  the  bottles. 

Ginger  beer  brewed  by 

I      the   method   of    sponta- 

M     neous     fermentation    is 

particularly  liable  to  be 

Jjil          infected     in     this    way, 

^^^^  ^^^B  since    it    is    entirely    a 

^  ^fl  matter  of  .chance   as   to 

first 


S.  afic.M»  (Schweita).          x   1,000. 

FIG.  103.  on  exposure  of  the  infu- 

sion to  the  air. 

The  use  of  a  cultivated  yeast  which  has  been  proved  to  give 
satisfactory  results  is  in  itself  a  safeguard  against  the  invasion 
of  wild  yeasts,  since,  when  the  liquid  is  briskly  fermenting,  the 
latter  cannot  easily  gain  any  foothold,  and  the  chance  of  their 
surviving  and  doing  their  work  later  on  is  greatly  reduced. 

In  the  case  of  infection  of  ginger  beer  mentioned  above, 
the  trouble  was  cured  by  thoroughly  cleansing  and  disinfecting 
the  brewing  plant  with  sulphurous  acid,  sterilising  the  ginger 
wort,  rapidly  cooling  it,  and  fermenting  with  a  very  active 
distiller's  yeast.  Although  the  ginger  beer  thus  produced  had 
somewhat  of  a  "  yeasty  "  flavour,  the  odour  and  taste  of  apples 


THE    MAKING   OF   GINGER   BEER  185 

which  had  rendered  the  other  beer  unsaleable  had  been 
completely  checked. 

In  a  paper  read  by  Mr.  Chapman  before  the  Institute  of 
Brewing,1  an  interesting  account  is  given  of  a  case  of  infection 
in  a  brewery  by  S.  apiculatus  during  the  winter.  As  the 
whole  of  the  plant  had  been  thoroughly  cleansed  and  disinfected 
there  could  have  been  no  possibility  of  any  decaying  wood- 
work having  formed  a  spot  where  the  wild  yeast  could  lodge 
from  brew  to  brew,  and  it  appeared  probable  that  the  cells  had 
been  borne  by  the  wind  into  the  brewery  earlier  in  the  year, 
and  had  lodged  upon  the  window-sills,  whence  from  time  to 
time  they  had  been  blown  into  the  fermenting  tuns. 

Many  of  the  precautions  suggested  by  Mr.  Chapman  (loc.  cit.) 
against  infection  of  beer  by  wild  yeasts,  might  with  advantage 
also  be  taken  in  the  brewing  of  ginger  beer.  For  example,  a 
cultivation  of  pure  yeast  in  sufficient  quantity  should  be  used  for 
the  fermentation  so  as  to  oust  any  wild  yeast  that  may  put  in  an 
appearance.  All  soft  parts  in  the  woodwork  of  the  fermenting 
should  be  removed  since  they  are  liable  to  form  centres  of 
infection  which  resist  the  actions  of  disinfecting  agents.  This 
is  one  of  the  reasons  why  slate  is  preferable  to  wood,  as  the 
material  for  the  fermenting  vessels. 

The  use  of  a  refrigerator  (vide  infra)  for  cooling  the  infusion 
of  ginger  beer  is  a  great  safeguard  against  infection  by  air- 
borne wild  yeasts,  since  it  so  greatly  reduces  the  period  of 
standing  before  introduction  of  the  proper  yeast.  It  is  the 
exception,  however,  for  this  method  of  cooling  to  be  employed, 
and  in  most  instances  the  beer  is  left  exposed  to  the  air  in  the 
fermenting  vessel  until  it  has  spontaneously  cooled  sufficiently 
for  fermentation. 

Infusion  Tanks. — The  crushed  ginger  is  infused  with  three 
successive  quantities  of  boiling  water  which  is  heated  in  a 
separate  tank  and  then,  run  on  to  the  ginger.  Or,  in  another 
method,  the  mixture  of  ginger  and  hot  water  is  heated  in  a  vat 
by  means  of  a  steam  coil  in  the  infusion  tank  itself.  The 
arrangement  of  the  steam  coil  used  for  this  purpose  will  be 

1  Journ.  Inst.  Brewing,  1904,  X.,  p.  382. 


186      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

understood  by  reference  to  Fig.  104,  a  space  being  left  under- 
neath so  that  the  vat  may  be  easily  cleaned. 

To  prevent  metallic  contamination  the  tubes,  which  are  of 
drawn  copper,  are  tinned  on  the  outside. 

In  the  other  method,  in  which  the  water  is  heated  entirely 


FIG.  104.— Steam  Coil  in  Ginger  Beer  Infusion  Tank. 

apart  from  the  ginger,  a  tank  of  galvanised  iron  is  ordinarily 
used,  and  a  jet  of  naked  steam  may  be  blown  into  the  water. 

The  infusion  tanks  are  generally  made  of  wood  either  in  the 
form  of  vats,  or  more  conveniently  as  shallow  squares,  which 
may  be  ranged  at  different  levels  above  each  other.  The  cocks 
and  other  fittings  are  made  of  gun-metal,  which  is  practically 
unaffected  by  any  organic  acids.  The  hot  infusion  of  ginger 


THE    MAKING   OF    GINGER   BEER 


187 


is  strained  off  into  the  vat  below,  while  the  residual  ginger 
receives  a  second  and  third  treatment  with  boiling  water, 
after  which  it  is  spent. 

The  united  extracts  are  now  sweetened  with  the  calculated 
amount  of  sugar,  and  when  a  refrigerator  is  not  used,  the 
tartar  ic  acid  is  also  added  at  this  stage. 

The  Refrigerator.  —  The  apparatus  used  for  cooling  beer 
rapidly,  before  introduction  of  the  yeast,  was  devised  some 
forty  years  ago. 

The  refrigerators  of  to-day  are  essentially  the  same  in  prin- 
ciple, the  chief  modifications  that  have  been  made  having 


FIG.  105. — Vertical  Kefrigerator. 

had  for  their  object  the  provision  of  a  greater  cooling  surface, 
and  the  facilitating  of  the  cleaning  of  the  inside. 

In  its  simplest  form  the  refrigerator  consists  of  a  series  of 
copper  tubes  arranged  above  one  another  in  a  vertical  frame, 
and  having  on  the  lower  side  of  each  tube  a  metal  attachment, 
which  is  sometimes  cut  in  the  form  of  a  saw,  to  secure  even 
distribution  of  the  liquid  falling  over  them.  Cold  water  enters 
the  lowermost  of  these  tubes,  and  passing  successively  through 
those  above  it,  leaves  the  top  tube  by  a  waste-pipe. 

Above  this  series  of  tubes  is  a  perforated  trough  into  which 
the  hot  ginger  beer  flows  in  a  steady  stream.  Thence  it 
trickles  through  the  holes  and  falls  upon  the  top  cooling  tube 


188 


MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 


and  so  on  from  tube  to  tube  until  it  reaches  the  bottom  where 
it  is  received  in  another  trough  with  an  outlet  pipe  connected 
with  the  fermenting  vessel. 

The  degree  of  cooling  it  receives  varies  with  the  temperature 
of  the  water  within  the  pipes,  and  of  the  speed  at  which  it  is 
made  to  trickle  over  them.  But  speaking  generally  there  is 
usually  a  difference  of  about  70°  F.  between  the  temperatures 
of  the  ginger  beer  in  the  upper  and  lower  troughs. 

In  modern  forms  of  the  refrigerator  the  cooling  tubes  are 
a  flattened  oval  instead  of  round,  so  as  to  give  a  greater  surface 
for  cooling,  and  caps  are  fitted  to  the  ends  of  the  tubes,  which 
enable  them  to  be  cleaned  inside  from  time  to  time  to  remove 
any  deposit  of  salts  from  hard  water. 


WAUR    OUTU& 


FIG.  106.— Horizontal  Eefrigerator. 

In  another  pattern  of  refrigerators  the  cooling  tubes  are 
arranged  horizontally  instead  of  vertically,  the  liquid  to  be 
cooled  passing  through  a  succession  of  compartments  in  a 
trough. 

This  type  of  apparatus  has  the  advantage  of  occupying  very 
little  space,  and  of  needing  only  a  drop  of  about  a  foot  from  the 
bottom  of  the  infusion  vessel.  On  the  other  hand,  it  uses  more 
water  than  the  vertical  form  of  apparatus.  This,  however, 
is  not  an  important  point,  where  the  water,  which  leaves  the 
refrigerator  quite  hot,  can  be  conducted  to  the  tanks  used 
for  washing  the  bottles  instead  of  being  run  to  waste. 


THE    MAKING   OF    GINGER   BEER 


189 


As  in  the  case  of  the  vertical  apparatus  these  horizontal 
refrigerators  are  fitted  with  caps  at  the  ends  of  the  tubes 
so  that  the  inside  can  be  periodically  examined  and  cleaned. 

In  yet  another  pattern  of  refrigerator  the  cooling  tubes  are 
arranged  in  a  circle  so  that  in  section  the  apparatus  has  the 
form  of  a  cylinder. 


FIG.  107. — Apparatus  for  Filling  Casks  with  Ginger  Beer. 

Fermentation  Tanks. — These  are  constructed  either  of  wood 
or  of  slate,  the  latter  being  preferable  (see  p.  180),  and  are 
provided  with  a  draw-off  cock  made  of  gun-metal.  This  is 
fixed  in  the  side  a  little  distance  from  the  bottom  to  prevent 
the  yeast  that  has  subsided  being  drawn  off  with  the  clear 
beer. 

When  wooden  tanks  are  used  it  is  essential  that  the  wood 
should  be  free  from  resinous  matter  which  could  be  extracted 
by  the  beer  and  impart  an  unpleasant  flavour.  For  this 
purpose  the  Riley  Manufacturing  Company  use  only  kauri  pine 
for  the  sweetening  and  fermentation  vats,  since  this  wood 
contains  very  little  resin. 

When  a  refrigerator  is  employed  for  chilling  the  beer  it  is 


190 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


usually  placed  beneath  the  sweetening  tank  and  above  the 
fermentation  tank,  and  the  tartaric  acid  is  added  to  the  cooled 
solution  in  the  latter  to  prevent  the  metal  fittings  of  the 
refrigerator  being  attacked. 

After  fermentation,  either  spontaneous  or  produced  by  the 
addition  of  yeast,  the  ginger  beer  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
twelve  hours  or  more  before  being  drawn  off  into  small  casks  or 
bottles.  Sufficient  sedimentation  of  the  yeast  is  an  essential 
process  in  the  production  of  a  beer  that  will  mature  properly 
and  keep  well. 


FIG.  108. — Riley's  Filling  Machine. 


Bottling  Machinery. — The  clear  beer  that  is  drawn  off  from 
the  fermentation  tank  is  put  up  in  casks  or  is  bottled  in  the 
well-known  earthenware  or  "  stone  "  bottles,  or  in  glass  bottles 
with  screw  stoppers. 

In  either  case  a  filling  apparatus  is  used  to  simplify  the 
process  and  render  it  more  speedy.  A  convenient  machine  for 
charging  casks  without  the  inconvenience  otherwise  caused  by 
the  froth  or  "  fob  "  is  that  made  by  Messrs.  Hay  ward-Tyler 
&  Co.  (see  Fig.  107). 

The  beer  coming  from  the  fermentation  vat  through  the 
pipe  A,  enters  the  measuring  vessels,  F,F,F,  by  way  of  the 


TI1K    MAKING    OF    GINGER   BEER 


191 


cocks,  B,B,B,  which  are  turned  off  as  soon  as  the  froth  reaches 
the  holes,  F,  at  the  top.  The  outlets  are  then  opened  by  pulling 
the  chains,  C,  and  the  beer  runs  into  the  casks  through  the 


FIG.  109.— Hayward-Tyler's  Filling  Machine. 

movable  arms  and  hose,  D.     The  process  is  carried  on  continu- 
ously the  place  of  each  cask  when  filled  being  taken  by  another. 


FIG.  110.  -Filling  the  Bottles. 

Any  beer  overflowing  or  spilt  falls  into  the  trough,  H,  while  an 
upper  trough,  E,  receives  what  may  be  carried  over  with  the 
froth  through  the  holes  at  the  top. 


192      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

For  filling  bottles  machines  acting  upon  the  siphon  principle 
are  in  common  use,  the  beer  passing  from  the  fermentation  vat 
into  a  trough  in  which  are  a  number  of  syphons  controlled  by 
automatic  ball  valves.  One  of  these  machines,  made  by  the 
Riley  Manufacturing  Company,  is  here  illustrated  (Fig.  108). 

This  has  a  broad  enamelled  trough  which  can  be  raised  or 
lowered  as  required,  and  is  fitted  with  special  check  valves  to 
prevent  the  ginger  beer  overflowing.  From  two  to  eight 
bottles  may  thus  be  filled  simultaneously,  the  place  of  each  one 
as  filled  being  taken  by  another  empty  bottle. 

As  fast  as  they  are  filled  the  bottles  are  removed  and  handed 
to  another  attendant,  who  drives  in  the  cork  and  ties  it  down 
with  string. 

Another  machine  made  by  Messrs.  Hay  ward- Tyler  &  Co.,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  109. 

The  process  of  filling  the  bottles  is  shown  in  the  accom- 
panying illustration  of  this  part  of  the  factory  of  Messrs. 
Beaufoy  &  Co. 


CHAPTER   XI 

EXAMINATION     OF    MINERAL    WATERS  I      GENERAL    CHARACTER- 
ISTICS —  THE    PRESSURE METALLIC    CONTAMINATION  - 

BACTERIOSCOPIC      EXAMINATION  INJURIOUS      FERMEN- 

TATIONS —  ROPINESS  —  PRESERVATIVES     AND      COLOURING 
MATTERS 

THE  general  characteristics  to  be  looked  for  in  well-made 
soda-water  are  that  it  should  be  quite  clear  and  free  from 
sediment  or  deposits  on  the  inside  of  the  bottle  ;  that  it  should 
open  without  violence  ;  and  that  it  should  continue  to  give  off 
bubbles  of  gas  for  at  least  five  minutes  after  being  turned  out 
of  the  bottle. 

The  almost  explosive  manner  in  which  badly-made  soda- 
water  leaves  the  bottle  indicates  the  presence  of  air  in  the 
water.  Although  such  water  efferversces  very  vigorously  at 
first  in  the  glass,  the  evolution  of  the  gas  soon  stops,  and  the 
water  becomes  flat  long  before  that  in  which  no  air  is  present. 

The  occurrence  of  a  deposit,  or  of  sediment,  in  the  bottle  is 
usually  due  to  bacterial  changes  and  its  presence  generally 
indicates  that  the  bottle  or  the  stopper  has  not  been  properly 
cleaned.  In  properly  regulated  factories  special  precautions 
are  taken  to  prevent  any  dirty  bottles  or  stoppers  accidentally 
slipping  into  a  batch.  Not  only  is  an  elaborate  system  of 
cleaning  employed,  but  every  bottle  is  subsequently  "  sighted  " 
as  a  safeguard  against  any  of  them  having  been  overlooked. 
This  is  the  more  necessary,  owing  to  the  fact  that  empty 
mineral  -  water  bottles  are  frequently  used  as  convenient 
receptacles  for  paraffin  oil,  turpentine  and  so  on  before  being 
returned  to  the  dealer. 

Measurement  of  the  Pressure. — Small  pressure  gauges  have 
been  devised  for  the  measurement  of  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
inside  the  bottles — a  point  of  importance  in  ascertaining 
whether  they  are  uniformly  charged. 

M.W.  o 


194 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


The  adaptation  of  these  test  gauges  is  very  simple.  Thus,  the 
instrument  for  corked  bottles  has  a  loosely  fitting  point  attached 
to  a  hollow  corkscrew  with  a  tap  and  screw  at  the  end.  When 
this  is  screwed  into  the  bottle  and  through  the 
cork  the  movable  point  falls  from  its  socket, 
and  on  now  screwing  the  gauge  on  to  the  end 
and  opening  the  tap  the  gas  is  brought  in 
contact  with  the  recording  mechanism  (see 
p.  62),  and  the  pressure  may  be  read  upon 
the  dial. 

A  similar  instrument  is  used  for  testing  the 
pressure  in  syphons,  the  mouth  of  the  latter 
being  brought  into  connection  with  the  tube  of 
the  gauge,  which  is  meanwhile  kept  in  position 
by  means  of  two  stays 
and  a  screw  that  is  turned 
down  until  it  grips  the 
head  of  the  syphon  (see 
Fig.  111). 

Testing  gauges  are  also 
made    to    be    used    with 

FIG.  111.— Testing  -,      i     ,,1 

Gauge      for  screw-stoppered     bottles, 

Syphons.       and  Codd's  or  ball-stop- 
pered bottles  (Fig.  112). 

As  has  already  been  mentioned,  there 
is  an  inevitable  loss  of  pressure  in  charging 
a  bottle  with  an  aerated  liquid.  With  the 
older  types  of  bottling-machines  it  is 
necessary  to  use  a  pressure  of  upwards  of 
120  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch  for  filling 
ordinary  bottles  and  a  much  higher 
pressure  for  syphons,  and  this  inevitably 
results  in  a  considerable  loss  of  gas. 

By  the  use  of  the  counter-pressure 
methods  of  bottling  (pp.  162,  170)  much  lower  pressures  may 
be  used  with  better  results.  A  pressure  of  50  to  60  Ibs.  to 
the  square  inch  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  liquid  in  the  bottle, 
and  if,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out  all  air  has  been 


EXAMINATION    OY   MINERAL   WATERS  195 

previously  expelled,  soda-water  showing  a  pressure  of  about 
70  Ibs.  when  taken  from  the  carbonating  cylinder  and  bottled 
in  a  counter-pressure  machine  will  leave  the  bottle  without 
splashing  over  the  glass  and  continue  to  sparkle  for  a  long 
time. 

Examination  of  Sediment. — Any  sedimentary  deposit  in 
bottles  of  aerated  water  should  be  examined  chemically  and 
under  the  microscope.  Occasionally,  in  the  case  of  dark-coloured 
goods,  it  is  due  to  some  of  the  colouring  matter  having  been 
thrown  out  of  solution — a  change  that  is  promoted  by  the 
bottle  having  been  exposed  to  strong  sunlight. 

A  white  powdery  sediment  adhering  loosely  to  the  bottom 
of  the  bottle  is  usually  of  an  organised  nature,  and  appears 
to  be  derived  from  impurities  introduced  with  the  sugar  or 
from  imperfectly  cleansed  vessels.  To  the  same  causes  may 
also  be  attributed  the  floating  flocculent  particles,  which  are 
sometimes  seen  in  bottles  of  lemonade. 

A  crystalline  deposit  on  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  bottle 
is  generally  mainly  due  to  calcium  tartrate,  which  is  formed 
by  the  interaction  of  the  tartaric  acid  (used  in  the  lemonade 
syrup)  with  the  calcium  salts  in  a  hard  water.  The  formation 
of  the  calcium  tartrate  takes  place  very  gradually,  and  is  of 
no  importance  from  the  hygienic  point  of  view,  though  it 
spoils  the  appearance  of  the  lemonade. 

If  much  trouble  is  caused  in  this  way  the  remedy  is  to  use 
a  soft  or  a  distilled  water  in  the  manufacture  of  any  aerated 
drink  containing  tartaric  acid. 

Metallic  Contamination. — The  metals,  traces  of  which  are 
of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  mineral  waters,  are  iron,  copper 
and  lead,  while  tin,  arsenic  and  zinc  are  occasionally  present. 

Iron,  the  presence  of  which  in  the  minute  quantity  in  which  it 
occurs  is  probably  of  no  physiological  importance,  usually 
finds  its  way  into  soda-water  from  contact  of  the  soda  with  some 
iron  object,  such  as  a  wet  scale  pan,  or  it  may  be  derived  from 
rust  from  the  water  pipes  that  feed  the  solution  tank. 

The  chief  objection  to  its  being  present  is  that  it  causes 

o2 


196      MINEKAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

discolouration  if  the  soda-water  subsequently  comes  in  con- 
tact with  any  liquid  containing  tannin,  such  as  for  example 
spirits  that  have  been  kept  for  some  time  in  oak  casks.  A  mere 
trace  of  tannin  is  sufficient  to  cause  the  darkening  of  soda- 
water  containing  iron  as  impurity  ;  and  tannin  thus  forms  a 
good  re-agent  for  the  metal.  It  is  not  difficult  to  prevent  the 
contamination  of  mineral  waters  with  iron  by  carefully  noting 
all  the  possible  sources. 

Antimony  in  Rubber  Rings. — The  red  rubber  composing  the 
rings  fixed  round  screw  stoppers  to  make  an  air-tight  joint 
with  the  bottle  contain  a  large  proportion  of  antimony  sulphide, 
to  which  they  owe  their  colour. 

Some  years  ago  a  medical  man  writing  in  a  daily  paper 
asserted  that  this  antimony  was  a  source  of  danger,  since  it 
was  liable  to  be  dissolved  by  carbonated  mineral  waters, 
especially  those  which,  like  lemonade,  contained  free  citric 
acid.  There  was  a  further  risk,  it  was  urged,  in  the  possibility 
of  small  particles  of  the  rubber  rings  becoming  separated  by 
friction,  and  being  subsequently  swallowed  and  dissolved  by 
the  gastric  juice. 

In  order  to  ascertain  the  degree  of  truth  in  these  statements 
a  series  of  experiments  was  made  by  the  present  writer.  No 
trace  of  antimony  could  be  found  in  any  bottles  of  soda-water, 
even  when  a  rubber  ring  had  been  cut  up  and  left  in  the  bottle 
so  as  to  give  a  much  greater  chance  of  contamination  than  is 
possible  under  normal  conditions,  in  which  only  a  relatively 
small  surface  of  the  rubber  can  come  in  contact  with  the 
liquid. 

Treatment  of  the  rubber  rings  with  hot  hydrochloric  acid  of 
five  per  cent  strength  also  failed  to  extract  any  antimony  from 
the  rubber,  and  since  this  degree  of  acidity  was  many  times 
greater  than  that  of  the  gastric  juice  it  was  evident  that  there 
was  no  risk  of  antimony  poisoning,  even  in  the  unlikely  event 
of  actual  particles  of  the  rubber  being  swallowed. 

The  only  way  in  which  the  metal  could  be  extracted  was  by 
treatment  with  alkali;  and  since  the  usual  product  of  the 
mineral  water  manufacturer  are  always  acid,  the  chance  of 


EXAMINATION   OF   MINERAL   WATERS          197 

any  antimony  being  found  in  soda-water  or  lemonade   may 
be  dismissed  as  infinitesimal. 

Antimony  is  also  employed  as  an  alloy  to  harden  the  tin 
used  for  the  heads  of  syphons,  but  metallic  antimony  is  not 
soluble  in  a  solution  of  carbon  dioxide,  and  contamination  of 
the  soda-water  with  antimony  from  this  source  is  out  of  the 
question. 

Copper. — Some  years  ago  copper  was  a  very  common 
impurity  in  soda-water,  into  which  it  found  its  way  through  the 
action  of  the  dissolved  carbon  dioxide  upon  the  copper  of  the 
soda-water  machines  and  pumps.  The  recognition  of  this  fact 
has  led  to  precautions  being  taken  to  exclude  copper,  and  at 
the  present  time,  all  parts  of  any  machinery  liable  to  come 
in  contact  with  carbonated  liquids  are  either  lined  with  pure 
block-tin  or  are  given  a  thick  wash  of  that  metal.  Hence 
copper  is  now  much  less  frequently  present  in  mineral  waters 
though  it  may  still  be  found  occasionally,  especially  in  cases 
where  the  tinning  of  the  inside  of  a  carbonating  cylinder  has 
worn  away  in  places.  The  copper  is  then  dissolved  very  readily, 
possibly  owing  to  some  galvanic  action  being  set  up  between  the 
two  metals. 

Apparently  the  copper  is  first  oxidised  by  the  oxygen 
contained  in  the  water,  and  the  oxide  converted  into  carbonate, 
which  dissolves  in  water  containing  an  excess  of  the  gas. 

In  the  light  of  recent  experiments  upon  the  effect  of  copper 
upon  the  human  system,  and  in  view  of  the  facts  that  metallic 
copper  and  copper  sulphate  are  extensively  used  in  America 
for  the  sterilisation  of  water,  it  is  questionable  whether  traces 
of  copper  such  as  sometimes  occur  in  mineral  waters  could 
have  any  injurious  effect  upon  the  system.  At  the  same  time, 
as  there  is  a  doubt  on  this  point,  manufacturers  rightly 
endeavour  to  prevent  their  customers  from  being  the  subjects 
of  experiments. 

Lead. — A  saturated  solution  of  carbon  dioxide  readily 
dissolves  lead  in  the  presence  of  oxygen,  an  oxide  or  hydroxide 
being  probably  formed  first  before  the  lead  is  converted  into 
a  carbonate. 


198  MINERAL  AND   AERATED    WATERS 

When  lead  occurs  in  soda-water  it  is  usually  derived  from 
the  solder  forming  the  joints  of  the  tin-pipes,  or  from  the  metal 
in  the  heads  of  syphons  ;  but  increasing  care  is  given  nowadays 
by  the  makers  of  mineral-water  machinery  to  prevent  contam- 
ination from  either  of  these  sources. 

Another  possible  source  of  lead  contamination,  to  which 
attention  was  called  in  1894  by  Budden  and  Hardy,  lies  in 
the  glazing  of  stoneware  bottles  and  of  earthenware  pans 
which  are  sometimes  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  syrup. 
In  fact,  these  chemists  definitely  assert  that  mineral  waters 
have  sometimes  taken  up  lead  in  this  way. 

The  dangerous  extent  to  which  soda-water  in  the  past  was 
liable  to  become  charged  with  lead  through  contact  with  the 
metal  in  the  course  of  manufacture  may  best  be  illustrated  by 
quotation  of  the  following  passage,  written  in  1856  by  Payen1.— 
"  During  the  early  days  of  the  manufacture,  waters  aerated  with 
carbonic  acid  were  accidentally  changed  in  composition  by  pro- 
longed contact  with  tubes  or  fittings  of  lead  or  of  an  alloy 
containing  10  to  18  per  cent,  of  that  metal.  A  small  quantity 
of  the  oxide  of  lead  formed  under  the  influence  of  the  oxygen 
in  the  air  was  then  converted  into  carbonate  which  passed 
partly  into  solution  and  was  partly  precipitated.  This 
poisonous  compound  would  have  been  able  to  have  caused 
serious  accidents,  especially  if  it  were  taken  over  a  long  period. 
Fortunately,  however,  the  authorities,  warned  in  time,  prohibi- 
ted the  use  of  alloys  containing  lead.  Pure  tin  is  now  employed 
and  all  danger  has  passed.  It  is  therefore  advisable  to  dis- 
trust all  old  apparatus,  and  to  see,  by  means  of  a  simple  test 
with  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  that  the  aerated  water  does  not 
contain  any  trace  of  compounds  of  lead.  Otherwise  all  the 
fittings  and  all  the  lead  tubes  in  the  machinery  ought  to  be 
replaced  by  other  of  pure  tin." 

Lemonade  is  much  more  liable  than  soda-water  to  contain 
traces  of  lead,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  citric  or  tartaric 
acid  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  syrup  is  very  frequently 
contaminated  with  a  minute  quantity  of  lead  derived  from  the 
leaden  pans  used  in  their  manufacture. 

1  Traite  des  Substances  Alimentaires. 


EXAMINATION   OF  MINERAL   WATERS          199 

In  fact,  it  is  not  an  easy  matter  to  obtain  a  commercial 
sample  of  either  of  these  acids  that  does  not  give  a  faint  reaction 
in  the  test  for  lead. 

Before  attention  had  been  directed  to  the  point  the  amounts 
of  lead  in  commercial  citric  and  tartaric  acids  were  much 
greater  than  the  traces  found  at  the  present  time,  and  the 
proportions  detected  in  lemonade  and  other  sweetened  aerated 
drinks  were  also  correspondingly  larger. 

For  instance,  Mr.  Stokes1  found  in  a  sample  of  ginger  beer 
(of  which  tartaric  acid  is  one  of  the  ingredients)  the  serious 
quantity  of  4J  grains  of  lead  per  gallon. 

It  is  probable  that  this  was  an  exceptionally  bad  case,  but 
it  illustrates  the  want  of  thought  then  given  to  the  manufacture 
of  these  acids  and  the  need  that  there  was  of  reform  in  this 
direction. 

Samples  of  citric  acid,  tartaric  acid  and  cream  of  tartar  more 
recently  examined  by  Mr.  R.  Tatlock,2  President  of  the  Society 
of  Public  Analysts,  were  never  found  to  be  quite  free  from  that 
metal,  and  even  a  sample  of  citric  acid,  bought  with  a 
guarantee  of  its  being  free  from  lead,  contained  0-0015  per 
cent. 

A  standard  was  recommended  by  Dr.  MacFadden  in  a  report 
to  the  Local  Government  Board  in  1907,  of  0-002  per  cent, 
as  a  maximum  permissible  quantity,  but  in  Mr.  Tatlock's 
opinion,  such  a  limit  is  unnecessarily  stringent  as  regards  the 
manufacturer.  In  the  case  of  numerous  commercial  samples 
of  tartaric  acid  he  found  amounts  up  to  0-012  per  cent.,  while 
the  highest  amount  detected  in  citric  acid  was  0-010  per  cent. 
These  results  indicated  that  some  standard  for  lead  in  these 
products  was  certainly  required,  but  taking  into  consideration 
the  physiological  factor  Mr.  Tatlock  considered  that  a  some- 
what higher  proportion  than  the  0-002  per  cent,  of  Dr.  Mac- 
Fadden's  standard  might  safely  be  permitted. 

On  this  point  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  standard  of 
0-002  per  cent,  of  lead  as  a  limit  has  been  found  practicable  in 
the  case  of  cream  of  tartar,  and  that  there  should  be  no  insu- 

1  Analyst,  1894,  XIX.,  p.  174. 

2  Analyst,  1908,  XXXIII.,  p.  173. 


200      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

perable  difficulty  in  producing  citric  and  tartaric  acid  of  an 
equal  degree  of  purity. 

In  any  case  the  mineral-water  manufacturer  would  do  well 
to  have  a  test  made  from  time  to  time  to  ascertain  that  the 
acids  used  by  him  do  not  contain  appreciably  more  than  this 
amount,  and  in  this  way  he  would  ensure  that  the  still  smaller 
proportion  of  lead  in  the  finished  lemonade  would  be  entirely 

negligible. 

\ 

Arsenic. — The  principal  direction  in  which  precautions  must 
be  taken  to  guard  against  the  introduction  of  arsenic  into 
mineral  waters  is  the  preparation  of  the  syrups  for  sweetened 
goods. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  the  remarkable  epidemic  of 
arsenical  poisoning  by  beer  some  years  ago  the  origin  of  the 
poison  was  traced  to  the  glucose  from  which  the  beer  had  been 
partially  brewed,  and  that  this  glucose  had  derived  it  from 
having  been  made  from  a  sulphuric  acid  prepared  from  arsenical 
pyrites. 

Since  glucose  is  frequently  used  in  mineral-water  factories 
there  is  a  possibility  of  arsenic  gaining  access  to  the  mineral 
water  from  this  source,  though  such  care  is  now  taken  in  the 
manufacture  that  it  is  rare  to  meet  with  glucose  giving  a 
reaction  for  as  much  as  one  part  of  arsenic  in  a  million. 

Arsenic  may  also  be  present  in  citric  and  tartaric  acids,  being 
introduced  by  the  mineral  acids  used  in  their  manufacture. 
Thus,  in  the  case  of  several  samples  of  Spanish  tartaric  acid 
examined  by  Dr.  MacFadden,  notable  quantities  of  arsenic 
were  present,  although  the  majority  of  the  samples  examined 
were  either  quite  free  from  the  impurity  or  contained  not  more 
than  0-00014  per  cent.  (TJn  grain  per  pound)  which  was  the 
permissible  limit  fixed  by  the  Arsenic  Commission. 

There  is  no  reason  why  both  these  and  other  raw  materials 
used  by  the  mineral  water  maker  should  not  answer  to  the 
requirements  of  this  standard,  and  the  manufacturers  of  citric 
acid  and  glucose  will  usually  give  guarantees  that  their  products 
will  comply  with  the  test. 

There  is  a  possibility  that  the  use  of  arsenical  sulphuric  acid 


EXAMINATION   OF   MINERAL   WATERS 


201 


in  a  generator  might  give  rise  to  the  formation  of  volatile 
arsenic  compounds  which  could  be  carried  forward  with  the 
gas  and  thus  be  dissolved  in  the  mineral-water.  This  suggests 
the  advisability  of  using,  for  this  purpose,  only  oil  of  vitriol 
that  is  practically  free  from  arsenic. 

Pharmacopoeia  Method. — A  committee  of  the  General 
Medical  Council  has  recently  (June,  1912)  issued  a  Supplemen- 
tary Report  dealing  with  the  most  suitable 
method  of  testing  for  arsenic  in  official 
drugs  and  fixing  limits  for  the  permissible 
quantities  in  these  substances. 

The  apparatus,  a  diagram  of  which  it  is 
intended  to  publish  in  the  next  edition  of 
the  Pharmacopoeia,  consists  of  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle  of  about  120  c.c.  capacity, 
closed  by  a  rubber  stopper  through  which 
passes  a  glass  tube  constricted  at  one  end 
and  having  a  small  opening  about  2  mm.  in 
diameter  at  B  (Fig.  113). 

Both  ends  of  this  tube  are  open,  the  top 
being  covered  with  a  strip  of  mercuric 
chloride  paper,  which  is  kept  in  position  by 
means  of  a  rubber  cap.  This  test  paper  is 
prepared  by  soaking  white  filter  paper  in  a 
saturated  solution  of  mercuric  chloride 
and  then  drying  it.  When  the  paper  is  FlG  113._Apparatus 
exposed  to  arseniuretted  hydrogen  a  yellow  for  Arsenic  Tests. 
stain  is  produced,  the  intensity  of  which  is 
proportional  to  the  amount  of  arsenic,  and  by  comparing  the 
stain  with  that  given  by  a  standard  solution  of  arsenious  oxide 
(1  c.c.  =  0-00001  gramme)  an  estimation  of  the  quantity  of 
arsenic  may  be  made.  For  this  purpose  a  "  standard  stain  " 
is  freshly  prepared  under  the  same  conditions  as  the  material 
under  examination.  Within  the  tube,  at  D,  is  placed  a  roll  of 
lead  acetate  paper.  Each  of  the  reagents,  including  the  acid 
and  zinc  for  the  production  of  the  gas  is  tested  for  arsenic  in 
the  apparatus  under  specified  conditions  to  ensure  that  they 


202 


MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 


are  sufficiently  pure  for  the  purpose.  Thus,  in  the  case  of 
hydrochloric  acid  containing  stamious  chloride  the  stain 
produced  on  the  mercuric  chloride  paper  in  a  period  of  30  to  40 
minutes  must  not  indicate  more  than  0-1  part  of  arsenic  per 
million  ;  while  10  grammes  of  zinc  should  give  no  visible  stain 
in  an  hour  when  tested  with  the  stannated  hydrochloric  acid. 

Special  directions  are  given  for  the  application  of  the  test 
to  the  different  drugs  of  the  Pharmacopoeia,  and  the  maximum 
permissible  quantity  of  arsenic  in  each  case  is  also  fixed. 

As  the  following  substances  in  the  Pharmacopoeia  are  used 
by  the  mineral- water  manufacturer  the  limit  of  arsenic  allowed 
in  the  Report  may  be  quoted  here  : — 


Parts  per 

Parts  per 

Million. 

Million. 

Citric  acid 

2 

Potassium  carbonate       .          2 

Glucose 

2 

Salicylic  acid         .  .          .          2 

Hydrochloric  acid 

5 

Sodium  bicarbonate         .          2 

Lithium  carbonate 

5 

Sodium  carbonate            .          2 

Magnesia 

5 

Sodium  sulphite   .  .           .          5 

Phosphoric  acid  .  . 

5 

Sulphuric  acid      .  .          .          5 

Potassium  bicarbonate 

5 

Tartaric  acid         .  .          .          2 

Tin. — In  a  communication  by  Budden  and  Hardy  to  the 
Society  of  Public  Analysts1  upon  the  estimation  of  minute 
traces  of  metals  it  is  stated  that  the  predominating  metallic 
impurity  in  mineral  waters  is  tin.  This  statement  is  at  variance 
with  the  experience  of  other  chemists2  who  have  found  that 
pure  tin  was  not  affected  by  a  solution  of  carbon  dioxide  and 
that  only  a  doubtful  reaction  could  be  obtained  in  the  experi- 
ments with  that  metal. 

The  discrepancy  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  an  impure 
tin  will  dissolve  more  readily  than  the  pure  metal,  possibly 
owing  to  electrolytic  action,  and  that  twenty  years  ago  the 
same  care  was  not  taken  as  at  present  to  ensure  that  the 
carbonating  cylinders  and  other  parts  of  the  plant  were  lined 
with  tin  free  from  impurities.  The  tin  now  used  by  the  best 
makers  of  mineral-water  machinery  for  this  purpose  contains 


1  Analyst,  1894,  XIX.,  169. 

2  Cf.  The  Lancet,  1893. 


EXAMINATION   OF   MINERAL   WATERS          208 

not  less  than  99-90  per  cent,  of  the  pure  metal.  In  the  present 
writer's  experience  no  trace  of  tin  can  be  detected  in  soda-water 
prepared  in  modern  apparatus,  although  in  the  case  of  lemonade 
a  trace  of  tin  may  sometimes  be  found  if  the  syrup  pipes  have 
not  been  washed  absolutely  clean  at  the  end  of  the  day. 

Bacterioscopic  Examination. — As  far  back  as  the  middle  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  long  before  the  real  nature  of  putre- 
faction was  discovered,  the  use  of  fixed  air  was  advocated  by 
MacBride  (see  p.  67)'  as  a  means  of  preventing  putrefactive 
changes.  And  subsequently,  after  the  part  played  by  micro- 
organisms in  fermentation  and  decay  had  become  known,  it  was 
still  generally  accepted  that  carbon  dioxide  was  an  efficient 
antiseptic  agent,  and  that  the  process  of  carbonating  a  liquid 
involved  its  simultaneous  sterilisation. 

It  came  therefore,  as  a  great  surprise  to  scientific  men  in 
general  as  well  as  those  connected  with  the  industry,  when  in 
the  course  of  an  investigation  made  some  four  years  ago  by 
the  Medical  Officer  for  the  City  of  London,  it  was  discovered 
that  from  a  bacteriological  point  of  view  a  considerable 
proportion  of  the  soda-water  then  being  sold  was  far  from 
pure. 

A  very  large  number  of  samples  representing  those  of  all  the 
leading  London  manufacturers  had  been  examined  by  Dr.  Klein 
and  while  many  of  these  contained  only  one  or  two  micro- 
organisms per  c.c.  and  were  practically  free  from  B.  coll 
communis,  in  others  the  number  of  micro-organisms  exceeded 
500  to  1,000  per  c.c.,  and  the  Bacillus  coli  communis  could  be 
isolated  from  one  c.c.  of  the  liquid. 

The  publication  of  these  results  was  held  back  for  six  months, 
pending  the  taking  of  steps  by  the  mineral- water  manufacturers 
to  insure  the  production  of  a  pure  product. 

A  meeting  was  held  at  which  Dr.  Collingridge  described 
the  precautions  which,  in  his  opinion,  were  necessary.  These 
included  the  use  of  a  water  the  bacteriological  purity  of  which 
was  controlled  by  periodical  tests  ;  preparation  of  the  soda 
solution  in  slate  tanks  with  covers  of  slate  or  of  metal  (not 
wood)  ;  the  removal  of  old  labels  in  a  separate  tank  and  sub- 


204     MINERAL  AND  AEBATED  WATERS 

sequent  cleansing  of  the  bottles  in  a  series  of  metal  tanks, 
the  final  rinsing  being  given  by  a  powerful  jet  of  the  same  water, 
as  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  soda-water ;  and  finally  a 
periodical  test  of  the  bacteriological  purity  of  the  finished 
product. 

These  precautions  were  accepted  by  the  mineral-water 
manufacturers,  and  their  association  now  issues  a  certificate 
annually  to  those  firms  whose  products  comply  with  these 
regulations,  and  a  subsequent  examination  by  Dr.  Klein  of 
the  soda-water  upon  the  market  showed  that  the  changes  had 
effected  a  great  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  aerated 
mineral  waters  sold  in  London. 

While  there  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  public  advantage 
of  enforcing  precautions  to  prevent  bacterial  contamination, 
and  to  ensure  the  utmost  cleanliness  in  the  factory,  it  is  doubtful 
to  what  extent  a  bacterioscopic  examination  of  a  bottle  of 
soda-water,  taken  at  random,  ought  to  be  regarded  as  a  fair 
test  of  the  degree  of  purity  attained  by  a  particular 
manufacturer. 

Experiments  made  by  the  writer  have  shown  that,  although 
for  a  time  the  number  of  bacteria  increases  in  a  bottle  of  soda- 
water,  the  contents  do,  eventually,  after  the  lapse  of  some 
months,  become  sterile  ;  and  the  factor  of  the  time  that  has 
elapsed  after  bottling  ought,  therefore,  to  be  taken  into  account. 
Otherwise  it  might  very  easily  happen  that  an  originally  impure 
soda-water,  which  had  been  in  the  shop  for  a  year,  would  give 
a  much  better  result  than  one  bottled  under  the  most  sanitary 
conditions. 

Apart  from  that,  in  the  examination  of  a  sample  bought 
at  random  there  is  always  the  chance  that  the  stopper  may 
have  been  accidentally  contaminated  by  the  hand  of  the 
worker,  and  several  bottles  known  to  have  been  bottled 
fairly  recently  ought,  therefore,  to  be  examined  before  drawing 
a  conclusion  adverse  to  the  methods  used  in  a  particular 
factory. 

The  use  of  distilled  water  in  the  preparation  of  mineral 
waters  has  the  advantage  of  obviating  the  deposit  of  any 
of  the  salts  contained  in  hard  waters,  but  it  by  no  means  follows 


EXAMINATION   OF   MINEEAL   WATERS          205 

that  soda-water  prepared  from  it  is  any  purer  bacteriologically 
than  that  prepared  from  ordinary  hard  waters. 

The  water  after  distillation  is  of  necessity  more  or  less 
exposed  to  the  air  and  soon  ceases  to  be  sterile.  Moreover, 
unless  distilled  water  is  also  used  for  washing  and  rinsing 
the  bottles,  the  chances  of  bacterial  infection  are  very  strong. 

In  fact,  bacterioscopic  examinations  of  soda-water  made  from 
distilled  water,  have,  in  some  cases,  given  worse  results  than 
those  obtained  with  soda-water  made  from  ordinary  tap  water. 

In  the  case  of  mineral  waters  prepared  from  the  London 
water  supply,  which  is  constantly  examined  by  the  Metro- 
politan Water  Board,  it  seems  hardly  reasonable  to  demand, 
in  the  finished  soda-water,  a  greater  degree  of  purity  than  that 
of  the  original  water,  over  the  management  of  which  the 
manufacturer  has  no  control. 

This,  of  course,  does  not  apply  to  those  whose  mineral 
waters  are  made  from  private  artesian  wells  as  is  frequently 
the  case  in  the  London  area.  The  purity  of  such  waters 
ought  obviously  to  be  placed  beyond  doubt,  both  by  chemical 
and  bacteriological  examination. 

As  to  the  standard  of  bacteriological  purity  it  is  not  easy  for 
the  reasons  to  be  given  to  fix  any  definite  limit  as  to  the  per- 
missible number  of  bacteria  in  1  c.c.  of  the  liquid.  However, 
as  the  writer  has  suggested  elsewhere,1  a  soda-water  examined 
after  bottling  ought  certainly  not  to  show  more  than  100  micro- 
organisms per  c.c.  at  20°  C. 

In  any  case,  a  system  of  inspection  of  the  factories,  carried 
out  at  irregular  intervals,  would  be  a  much  more  efficient 
safeguard  of  purity  than  even  a  frequent  examination  of 
samples  bought  at  random. 

Mucinous  Fermentation. — It  not  infrequently  happens  that 
a  bottle  of  lemonade  becomes  gum-like  and  viscous — sometimes 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  can  hardly  be  poured  out. 

This  so-called  "  ropiness  "  is  due  to  the  action  of  certain 
bacteria  upon  the  sugar,  which  they  convert  into  a  mucinous 
mass,  to  which  the  name  of  viscose  has  been  applied. 

1  Article  on  Aerated  Waters  in  Thorpe's  "  Dictionary  of  Applied  Chemistry" 
191 1. 


206      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

Several  species  of  bacteria  possess  this  power  of  acting 
upon  sugar,  and  one  of  these,  Bacillus  viscosus  sacchari,  will 
transform  beet-sugar  into  a  viscid  mass  in  about  48  hours. 

Another  species,  B.  gelatinosum  betce,  discovered  in  beet 
juice,  that  had  become  gelatinous,  differed  from  the  preceding 
one  in  its  conditions  of  culture  and  in  the  fact  of  its  being 
motile. 

A  micro-organism  that  is  particularly  troublesome  in  cane- 
sugar  factories  is  known  as  Leuconostoc  mesenteroides . 

Under  favourable  conditions  this  bacterium  inverts  the 
sugar,  while  it  meanwhile  becomes  converted  itself  into  a 
gelatinous  mass  or  zoogloeal  condition.  It  has  the  power  of 
resisting  a  high  temperature,  which  accounts  for  its  develop- 
ment in  the  hot  sugar  juice  in  the  factories. 

Some  of  these  organisms  act  upon  sugar  much  more  readily 
when  air  is  excluded,  and  this  probably  explains  their  rapid 
growth  in  sweetened  aerated  drinks  from  which  all  air  has  been 
expelled  by  the  carbonic  acid  gas. 

The  main  source  of  this  trouble  in  the  mineral-water  factory 
is  beetroot  sugar,  in  which,  as  is  explained  above,  these 
bacteria  occur  normally.  Owing  to  the  formation  of  their 
protective  mucinous  covering  they  are  able  to  resist  both  heat 
and  long-continued  drying.  For  instance,  in  one  experiment, 
a  certain  species  was  found  to  be  alive  after  being  heated  for 
five  minutes  by  dry  heat  at  212°  F.,  and  then  exposed  for 
three  and  a  half  years  to  the  air. 

The  spores  are  still  more  resistant  to  heat,  and  probably 
remain  in  the  sugar  ready  to  develop  under  suitable  conditions. 
Hence  the  greater  the  degree  of  purification  to  which  beet- 
sugar  has  been  subjected  the  less  liable  it  will  be  to  become 
"  ropy  "  from  this  cause  ;  and  this  is  why  it  is  often  economical, 
without  taking  into  consideration  the  sweetening  power,  to 
use  only  thoroughly  purified  sugar  in  the  preparation  of  the 
syrups  for  lemonade,  ginger  ale  and  the  like,  and  to  see  that 
the  syrups  have  been  thoroughly  sterilised  before  filtration. 

When  only  an  occasional  bottle  of  lemonade  becomes  viscous 
the  contamination  may  be  regarded  as  accidental  and  probably 
due  to  insufficient  cleansing  of  the  bottle,  but  when,  as  has  been 


EXAMINATION   OF   MINERAL    WATERS          207 

known  to  happen,  a  whole  batch  of  goods  becomes  ropy,  the 
cause  must  be  sought  in  the  sugar,  or  in  wholesale  infection  of 
the  syrup  niters  or  pans. 

Acetic  Fermentation. — Ordinary  bottled  mineral  waters  are 
not  liable  to  be  affected  by  acetic  bacteria,  since  these  require 
a  supply  of  oxygen  for  their  development  and  specific  fermen- 
tation. In  the  case  of  ginger  beer,  however,  conditions 
favourable  to  the  growth  of  these  bacteria  frequently  are 
present,  and  it  is  not  rare  for  souring  in  cask  beer  to  take  place 
owing  to  conversion  of  part  of  the  alcohol  into  acetic  acid. 

The  micro-organisms  that  cause  this 
curious  fermentation  are  bacilli,  several 
species  of  which  have  been  described. 
One  of  these,  which  normally  forms  long 
chain-like  forms,  is  shown  in  Fig.  114. 

If  only  a  small  quantity  of  air  is 
supplied,  as  may  happen  in  a  ginger  beer 
bottle  with  a  defective  cork,  the  bacteria 
transform  themselves  into  a  compact 
tripe-like  mass,  scientifically  described  as 
the  zooglceal  condition,  but  more  popu- 
larly known  as  moiher-of -vinegar.  In  this  form  they  are  able  to 
survive  much  longer  in  the  absence  of  a  sufficient  supply  of 
oxygen  Acetic  bacteria  thrive  best  at  a  high  temperature,  and 
in  vinegar  factories  work  well  at  temperatures  about  100°  F. 
For  this  reason  ginger  beer  is  more  liable  to  turn  sour  in  the 
course  of  a  hot  summer  than  in  the  autumn  or  winter,  and 
storing  the  casks  or  bottles  in  a  cool  place  will  reduce  the 
chance  of  the  beer  deteriorating  in  this  way,  even  when  air 
can  gain  access  to  it. 

So  long  as  the  ginger  beer  is  being  quietly  fermented  by  the 
yeast  there  is  little  risk  of  its  turning  sour,  for  the  alcoholic 
fermentation  prevents  the  action  of  the  acetifying  bacteria. 

The  chemical  action  effected  by  the  latter  appears  to  be  a 
complex  one,  although  its  main  results  may  be  expressed  by 
the  formula — 

vAjHoO  -|"  O>2  ==  L^H^Oa  ~T~  -H-sO. 


208      MINEEAL  AND  AEEATED  WATERS 

That  is  to  say  the  alcohol  is  eventually  transformed  into  acetic 
acid,  though  aldehyde  and  other  compounds  are  formed  as 
intermediate  products. 

Apparently  the  acetic  bacteria  act  merely  as  conveyers  of  the 
oxygen  from  the  air  to  the  alcohol,  and  do  not  seem  to  be 
changed  in  the  oxidation  process,  which  will  continue  so  long 
as  air  and  alcohol  are  present. 

In  the  course  of  the  oxidation  heat  is  spontaneously  produced, 
and  under  the  most  favourable  conditions  for  acetification  the 
temperature  will  rise  to  above  110°  F.,  as  was  mentioned 
above. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  this  is  a  striking  example  of 
gradual  acclimatisation  of  a  living  organism  to  its  surroundings  ; 
for  according  to  the  text-books  of  Continental  authorities,  the 
bacteria  die  at  a  lower  temperature  than  this. 

Since  the  germs  of  the  bacteria  are  present  in  the  air  it  is 
essential  that  the  bungs  should  not  be  left  out  of  casks  of  ginger 
beer  during  use,  for  under  these  conditions  even  the  best 
products  are  liable  to  become  sour. 

Preservatives  in  Mineral  Waters. — The  question  of  the 
permissibility  of  using  preservative  agents  is  not  so  urgent  as 
in  the  case  of  other  non-alcoholic  drinks,  such  as  lime-juice 
cordial,  since,  with  a  few  exceptions,  they  are  not  necessary. 

Soda-water,  for  instance,  if  prepared  from  pure  materials 
and  properly  carbonated  in  clean  bottles  ought  to  keep  inde- 
finitely, while  the  occurrence  of  fermentation  in  sweetened 
goods,  such  as  lemonade  and  ginger  ale,  is  quite  exceptional,  and 
is  generally  caused  by  the  use  of  an  impure  or  insufficiently 
sterilised  sugar. 

In  one  class  of  goods,  however,  the  so  called  winter  syrups, 
the  use  of  some  preservative  agent  appears  to  be  unavoidable, 
since  they  contain  a  very  large  amount  of  sugar  and  fruit  juice 
and  are  only  used  gradually  after  the  bottle  is  opened. 

They  could,  of  course,  be  sterilised  in  the  bottle  by  heat,  but 
this  would  only  be  effective  while  the  bottle  was  closed,  and 
when  once  its  contents  had  been  exposed  to  the  air  they  would 
be  liable  to  rapid  fermentation  ;  and  the  customer  would  refuse 


EXAMINATION   OF   MINERAL   WATERS          209 

to  have  any  further  supplies  of  the  kind.  Apart  from  this, 
there  is  the  objection  that  fruit  syrups  thus  sterilised  lose  much 
of  their  freshness  of  flavour,  and  are  not  equal  to  those  in  which 
the  preservation  is  ensured  by  the  addition  of  a  chemical  agent. 

A  further  difficulty  that  the  manufacturer  has  to  meet  is  that 
in  the  event  of  accidental  fermentation  of  any  of  his  products 
he  is  liable  to  prosecution  by  the  Excise  authorities  tor  selling 
spirits  without  a  license,  whereas  if  he  add  an  antiseptic  agent 
proceedings  may  be  taken  against  him  under  the  Food  and' 
Drugs  Act. 

The  chaotic  state  of  the  law  upon  the  subject  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  every  county  and  borough  authority  forms  its  own 
opinion  upon  the  question.  In  some  districts  the  use  of 
salicylic  acid  in  non-alcoholic  drinks  is  tacitly  permitted, 
while  in  others  prosecutions  frequently  take  place. 

Nor  is  there  any  agreement  upon  the  point  among  public 
analysts,  who  have  frequently  discussed  the  subject  but  with 
out  coming  to  any  definite  decision  upon  the  point. 

The  medical  officers  of  health  also  hold  different  views  on 
the  preservative  question,  and  not  long  ago  there  was  witnessed 
the  curious  spectacle  of  the  medical  authority  of  a  borough 
giving  evidence  in  a  prosecution  that  the  use  of  salicylic  acid 
as  a  preservative  in  non-alcoholic  drinks  was  objectionable, 
while  the  medical  officer  of  an  adjoining  county  was  called  as  a 
witness  as  to  its  being  harmless.  The  case  was  dismissed,  but 
as  the  law  stands  there  is  no  finality  in  such  matters,  and  the 
same  manufacturers  might  have  been  summoned  again  for  the 
same  offence  in  the  same  court. 

A  case  strongly  defended  as  this  one  was,  is  generally  dis- 
missed, but  it  is  absurd  that  a  matter  of  so  much  importance 
both  to  the  public  and  the  manufacturer,  should  be  left  to  the 
caprice  of  individual  magistrates  who  have  not  the  necessary 
knowledge  to  decide  a  question  upon  which  there  is  a  profound 
difference  of  opinion  among  leading  medical  men. 

The  only  fair  method  of  settling  this  dispute  between  those 

who  have  to  supply  an  article  that  will  keep  and  those  who  say 

it  must  not  be  done  in  the  only  way  in  which  practically  it  can 

be  done,  is  to  have  a  Board  of  reference  upon  which  are  repre- 

M.W.  p 


210  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

sentatives  both  of  the  public  health  authorities  and  of  the 
manufacturers,  and  for  this  Board  to  decide  whether  preser- 
vatives shall  be  used,  and  if  so,  to  what  extent. 

Any  regulations  made  by  such  a  Board  would  need  to  be  very 
rigidly  enforced,  and  not  administered  in  the  present  haphazard 
fashion.  Otherwise  a  manufacturer  who  tried  to  comply  with 
the  law  would  be  unable  to  compete  with  a  more  unscrupulous 
rival  who  risked  an  occasional  prosecution,  secure  in  the 
knowledge  that  he  could  pay  any  fine  out  of  the  profits  of  his 
goods  that  escaped  detection. 

Readers  interested  in  the  general  aspects  of  this  subject  may 
be  referred  to  the  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  of  1901 
upon  Preservatives  and  Colouring  Matters  in  foods.  The 
recommendations  of  that  body,  which  are  largely  based  upon 
the  very  conflicting  views  of  the  medical  witnesses,  are  some- 
times qiioted  in  prosecutions,  but,  with  few  exceptions,  they 
have  never  been  given  legal  force  and  the  condition  of  affairs 
is  very  little  different  from  what  it  was  before  it  began  its 
lengthy  enquiry. 

With  regard  to  the  preservatives  actually  used  in  mineral 
waters  the  only  ones  of  common  occurrence  are  salicylic  acid 
and  sulphites,  the  former  being  used  in  the  sweetened  goods, 
especially  during  periods  of  very  hot  weather.  Sulphites  or 
bisulphites  are  extensively  employed  in  breweries  in  cleansing 
the  plant,  and  are  sometimes  used  for  the  same  purpose  in 
mineral- water  factories.  In  this  way  small  quantities  of  the 
preservative  may  find  their  way  into  mineral  waters,  apart 
from  their  being  intentionally  added,  but  as  the  sulphurous 
acid  is  soon  oxidised  to  sulphate,  the  presence  of  such  traces  is 
of  no  practical  importance. 

Artificial  Colouring  Matters  in  Mineral  Waters. — The  presence 
of  artificial  colouring  matters  in  the  products  of  the  mineral- 
water  manufacturer  is  not  of  such  importance  as  the  presence 
of  preservatives.  In  the  majority  of  the  articles  made,  the 
aim  is  to  exclude  colour  as  far  as  possible ;  and  even  in  the 
case  of  lemonade,  objection  is  taken  to  a  slight  yellow  tint, 
and  a  perfectly  colourless  liquid  must  be  bottled. 


EXAMINATION   OF   MINERAL   WATERS  211 

Tn  the  darker  goods,  such  as  kola  and  ginger  ale,  an  addition 
of  a  specially  prepared  caramel  is  often  made  while  in  other 
cases  an  aniline  dyestuff  is  employed.  Caramel  has  the  advan- 
tage of  being  above  reproach  from  the  hygienic  point  of  view, 
but  is  open  to  the  objection  that  unless  special  means  are  taken 
in  its  preparation,  it  is  liable  to  deposit  in  the  bottles  under  the 
influence  of  the  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Since  it  is  not  always  easy  to  obtain  a  supply  of  caramel  of 
a  uniform  character  in  this  respect,  an  aniline  dyestuff 
is  much  more  frequently  used  for  colouring  ginger  ale  and 
the  like. 

Suitable  colouring  matters  sometimes  of  vegetable  origin  are 
also  used  for  colouring  concentrated  fruit  syrups,  since  the 
natural  colour  of  the  fruit  itself  is  regarded  by  the  public  as  too 
pale  for  the  purpose. 

So  much  attention  has  been  drawn  to  this  subject,  that 
really  poisonous  dyes  such  as  Martius  Yellow  are  now  rarely 
used  for  the  purpose  of  colouring  food.  In  any  case  the 
proportion  used  in  any  aerated  water  is  extremely  small, 
and  the  following  conclusion  of  the  Departmental  Committee 
on  Preservatives  and  Colouring  Matters  in  Foods  applies  also 
to  mineral  waters  : — "  In  regard  to  the  colouring  matters  of 
modern  origin,  while  we  are  of  opinion  that  articles  of  food  are 
very  much  preferable  in  their  natural  colours,  we  are  unable 
to  deduce  from  the  evidence  received  that  any  injurious  results 
have  been  traced  to  their  consumption. 

Undoubtedly  some  of  the  substances  used  to  colour  confec- 
tionery and  sweetmeats  are  highly  poisonous  in  themselves  ; 
but  they  are  used  in  infinitesimal  proportions,  and  before  any 
individual  had  taken  enough  of  colouring  matter  to  injure  him 
his  digestion  would  probably  have  been  seriously  disturbed 
by  the  substance  which  they  were  employed  to  adorn." 

It  is  an  easy  matter  to  distinguish  between  caramel  and 
aniline  dyestuff s  in  the  examination  of  mineral  waters,  advan- 
tage being  taken  of  the  dyeing  properties  of  the  latter  in  tests 
with  silk  or  woollen  fibre. 

Use  of  Mineral  Acids. — The  acidity  of  the  lemon  being  due 


'212  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

to  citric  acid  it  is  preferable  to  use  this  acid  in  the  preparation 
of  the  syrups  for  lemonade. 

In  practice,  however,  tartaric  acid  made  from  wine  lees, 
is  also  commonly  used,  and  there  is  very  little  difference  in 
flavour  between  the  lemonades  prepared  with  either  acid, 
although,  when  compared  side  by  side,  tartaric  acid  is  slightly 
rougher  to  the  taste. 

In  addition  to  these  fruit  acids,  preparations  of  mineral  acids, 
usually  phosphoric  acid,  are  sold  as  substitutes  for  obtaining 
the  desired  acidity.  These  phosphoric  acid  syrups  are 
advertised  under  attractive  titles  and  give  a  much  greater 
degree  of  acidity  than  the  citric  acid  bought  for  the  same 
sum. 

The  flavour  of  the  lemonade  prepared  with  them  is  somewhat 
similar  to  that  containing  citric  or  tartaric  acid,  but  there  is 
a  harshness  in  the  phosphoric  acid  preparations  that  is  lacking 
in  those  made  from  fruit  acids.  Phosphoric  acid  is  as  liable 
as  tartaric  acid  to  contain  traces  of  lead  and  arsenic,  and  some 
of  the  preparations  have  also  been  found  to  contain  a  notable 
proportion  of  free  sulphuric  acid. 

An  advantage  claimed  for  its  use  is  that  it  acts  as  a  preser- 
vative and  checks  fermentation.  This  is  probably  true,  but 
the  drawbacks  cited  more  than  outweigh  this. 

Alkalinity  of  Soda-Water. — A  point  of  considerable  impor- 
tance in  the  examination  of  soda-water  is  the  estimation  of 
the  amount  of  sodium  bicarbonate  in  solution. 

Prior  to  the  publication  of  the  current  "  British  Pharma- 
copoeia "  in  1898,  soda-water  was  an  official  drug,  and  had  to 
contain  exactly  30  grains  of  sodium  bicarbonate  per  pint. 
As  this  proportion  of  the  salt  was  often  too  large  to  suit  the 
public  taste,  soda-water  containing  much  less  sodium  carbonate 
than  the  prescribed  quantity  was  widely  sold,  with  the  result  of 
prosecutions  under  the  Food  and  Drugs  Act  for  the  sale  of  an 
article  '*  not  of  the  substance  and  quality  demanded." 

In  the  eyes  of  the  general  public,  however,  it  was  usually  good 
aeration  that  was  required,  not  a  certain  proportion  of  sodium 
bicarbonate,  and  thus  even  plain  aerated  water  had  come  to  be 


EXAMINATION   OF   MINERAL   WATERS  213 

known  as  "  soda-water."  It  was  not  a  question  of  economy  on 
the  part  of  the  manufacturer,  since  the  cost  of  the  amount  of 
sodium  bicarbonate  officially  prescribed  was  infinitesimal,  but 
of  supplying  an  article  for  which  there  was  a  better  sale. 

The  position  of  affairs  was  thus  very  similar  to  the  develop- 
ment in  France,  where  Eau  de  Seltz,  which  had  originally  been 
introduced  as  a  medicinal  preparation  in  imitation  of  the 
natural  Seller 'swasser,  had  gradually  become  a  popular  drink. 

The  mineral  salts  were  then  gradually  reduced,  until  finally 
the  name  Eau  de  Seltz  has  come  to  connote  nothing  more  than 
ordinary  carbonated  water. 

The  suggestion  was  frequently  made  in  this  country  that  a 
distinction  should  be  made  between  plain  "  aerated-water  " 
and  "  soda  water,"  but  changes  in  trade  names  of  this  kind 
are  not  easily  made,  except  under  compulsion  applied  to  all 
the  manufacturers. 

The  omission  of  soda-water  from  the  current  "  British  Phar- 
macopoeia "  has  put  the  matter  upon  a  different  basis.  Now  that 
the  preparation  is  no  longer  regarded  as  a  drug,  there  is  no 
official  standard  for  the  amount  of  sodium  bicarbonate  it  shall 
contain,  and  the  usual  practice  of  the  manufacturer  at  the 
present  time  is  to  introduce  as  much  of  the  salt  as  he  can  with- 
out rendering  the  soda-water  too  unpalatable  and  stopping  his 
trade. 

Since  the  name  "  soda-water  "  is  still  retained,  a  substantial 
proportion  of  sodium  bicarbonate  ought  to  be  present,  and  in 
the  majority  of  the  varieties  now  upon  the  market  this  is  the 
case. 

In  some  of  these  the  amount  of  bicarbonate  ranges  from 
about  5  to  10  grains  per  pint,  and  it  is  only  exceptionally  that 
the  bottle  contains  only  ordinary  water  aerated. 

The  composition  of  potash-  and  lithia-water  stands  upon  a 
different  footing  from  that  of  soda-water.  They  have  never, 
as  in  the  case  of  soda-water,  become  popular  drinks,  but  have 
been  taken  only  medicinally.  Hence,  anyone  buying  lithia- 
water,  for  example,  does  so  in  the  anticipation  of  getting  a 
definite  dose  of  lithium  carbonate  in  a  form  that  is  pleasant  to 
take. 


214      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

In  the  "  British  Pharmacopoeia  "  of  1885,  both  potash-water 
and  lithia-water  were  recognised  as  official  drugs,  and  it  was 
prescribed  that  the  former  should  contain  30  grains  of  potassium 
bicarbonate  and  the  latter  10  grains  of  lithium  carbonate 
per  pint,  and  be  bottled  under  a  pressure  of  about  4 
atmospheres. 

Although  both  potash-  and  lithia- waters  have  shared  the  fate 
of  soda-water  and  are  no  longer  recognised  officially  as  drugs 
by  the  "Pharmacopoeia,"  the  proportions  of  the  carbonates 
formerly  prescribed  are  still  generally  taken  in  preparing  these 
mineral  waters. 

Saccharin  in  Mineral  Waters. — The  substitution  of  a  large 
proportion  of  the  sugar  in  sweetened  mineral  waters  is  a  very 
general  practice  in  the  industry.  It  offers  the  advantages  of 
cheapness  and,  when  added  in  not  too  large  an  excess,  of  giving 
a  drink  that  is  sweet  without  being  heavy.  On  the  other  hand, 
if  saccharin  is  used  by  itself,  or  if  too  little  sugar  is  employed, 
the  product  will  have  a  cloying  effect  upon  the  palate.  Another 
point  claimed  for  saccharin  by  its  manufacturers  is  that  it 
possesses  antiseptic  properties,  and  thus  acts  as  a  preservative 
and  tends  to  check  fermentation. 

The  corporation  that  controls  the  sale  of  saccharin  in  this 
country  issued  a  pamphlet  setting  forth  its  advantages  for 
the  mineral  water  manufacturer  and  citing  the  opinions  of 
well-known  medical  men  as  to  its  harmless  nature.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  have  been  communications  to  foreign 
scientific  papers  in  support  of  the  view  that  saccharin  may  be 
injurious.  No  exception,  however,  has  ever  been  taken  to 
its  use  in  mineral  waters  in  this  country,  and  considering  the 
fact  that  it  is  now  so  widely  used,  any  isolated  action,  unsup- 
ported by  the  Local  Government  Board,  would  probably  fail. 

Saponine. — The  popular  demand  for  sweetened  aerated 
drinks,  that  will  froth  when  poured  from  the  bottle  and  retain 
a  certain  degree  of  foaminess  in  the  glass,  has  led  to  the  intro- 
duction of  a  class  of  preparations  known  as  "  foam  headings  " 
and  so  on.  A  small  quantity  of  one  of  these  added  to  the  syrup 
produces  the  desired  result  in  the  aerated  liquid. 


EXAMINATION   OF   MINERAL   WATKUS          215 

The  addition  is  not  made  to  soda-water,  while  ginger  beer,  if 
allowed  to  mature  for  a  short  time,  produces  its  own  "  heading  " 
by  the  action  of  the  yeast  during  the  fermentation.  It  is  in 
such  products  as  lemonade,  lime-ade,  kola  and  ginger  ale,  that 
artificial  frothing  may  be  anticipated. 

The  basis  of  most,  if  not  all,  of  these  "  foam  "  preparations 
is  quillaia  bark,  which  contains  an  active  principle,  saponine, 
that  has  the  property  of  frothing  like  soap  with  water, 

Researches  made  a  few  years  ago  by  Bourcet  and  Chevalier1 
showed  that  ordinary  commercial  saponine  usually  consisted 
of  a  mixture  of  acid  saponines  with  a  poisonous  neutral  sapo- 
toxine.  The  latter  is  very  toxic  when  injected  into  the  system, 
but  is  less  poisonous  when  taken  internally.  In  the  latter  case 
it  is  liable  to  produce  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane. 
It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  experiments  were 
made  with  the  pure  substance,  and  not  with  the  commercial 
mixture  containing  the  toxine,  and  that  no  cases  of  poisoning 
by  mineral  waters  containing  saponine  have  been  reported  over 
a  period  of  many  years. 

At  the  same  time  the  addition  is  not  really  a  necessity,  and, 
as  was  pointed  out  above,  has  grown  as  the  result  of  a  demand 
for  a  product  possessing  artificial  properties. 

1  Bull  Set.  Pharm.,  1905,  VII.,  p.  262. 


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218      MINERAL  AND  AERATED  WATERS 

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GAIRDNER.  "  Essay  on  the  Natural  History,  Origin, 
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GRANVILLE.  "  The  Spas  of  Germany  Revisited."  By 
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GREW.  "  A  Treatise  of  the  Nature  and  Use  of  Bitter 
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HALES.  "  Statical  Essays."  By  Stephen  Hales.  London, 
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HAYGARTH.  "  Machine  for  Impregnating  Water  or  other 
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HENRY.  "  Account  of  a  Method  of  Preserving  Water." 
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HERMANN-LA  CHAPELLE.  "  Les  Boissons  Gazeuses."  Paris, 
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HIRSCH.  "  Die  Fabrikation  der  Kiinstlichen  Mineral- 
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HOFFMANN.  "  Bericht  von  der  Wurckung  des  Brunnens 
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HOFFMANN.  "  Experiments  and  Observations  upon  Mineral 
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INGRAM.  "  Natural  Mineral  Waters  :  their  Properties  and 
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KING.  "  Observations  on  the  Artificial  Mineral  Waters  of 
Dr.  Struve,  Prepared  at  Brighton."  By  W.  King.  Brighton, 
1826. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  219 

KIRKBY.  "The  Evolution  of  Artificial  Mineral  Waters." 
By  W.  Kirkby.  Manchester,  1902. 

LANE.  "  A  Letter  on  the  Solubility  of  Iron  in  Water  by 
the  Intervention  of  Fixed  Air."  By  T.  Lane.  Phil.  Trans. 
Roy.  Soc.,  1769,  LIX.,  216. 

LAVOISIER.     "  Traite  Elementaire  de  Chimie."      Paris,  1789. 

LAVOISIER.  "  Opuscules  Physiques  et  Chimiques."  Paris, 
1774. 

LEE.     "  Mineral  Springs  of  England."     By  E.  Lee.     1841. 

LEE.     "The  Baths  of  Germany."     London,  1839. 

LEMERY.  "Course  of  Chymistry."  By  N.  Lemery.  Fourth 
English  Edition.  London,  1720. 

MACBRIDE.  "  Experimental  Essays  on  Medical  and  Philo- 
sophical Subjects."  By  David  Macbride,  M.D.  London, 
1767. 

MACKENZIE.  "  One  Thousand  Processes  in  Manufacture." 
By  C.  Mackenzie.  London,  1825. 

MACQUER.  "  Dictionary  of  Chemistry."  English  trans- 
lation, 1771. 

MACQUER.     "  Dictionnaire  de  Chimie."     Paris,  1778. 

MAGELLAN.  "  Description  of  a  Glass  Apparatus  for  Making 
Mineral  Waters."  By  J.  H.  de  Magellan.  1777. 

MICHOTTE.  "  Traite  des  Eaux  Gazeuses."  By  F.  Michotte 
and  E.  Guillaume.  Paris. 

MITCHELL  "  Aerated  and  Mineral  Waters."  By  C.  A. 
Mitchell.  Thorpe's  "  Dictionary  of  Applied  Chemistry,"  1911. 

MUSPRATT.    "  Chemistry."    By  S.  Muspratt.    London,  1860. 

NOOTH.  "  Apparatus  for  Impregnating  Water  with  Fixed 
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London,  1772. 

PRIESTLEY.  "  Experiments  and  Observations  on  Different 
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220  MINERAL   AND   AERATED   WATERS 

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delivered  at  the  Royal  Society."  By  Sir  John  Pringle, 
Nov.  30,  1773.  London,  1774. 

RUTTY.  "A  Methodical  Synopsis  of  Mineral  Waters."  By 
John  Rutty,  M.D.  London,  1757. 

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Dr.  Struve,  of  Dresden.  London,  1823. 

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BEDDOES.) 


INDEX 


ACETIC  bacteria,  207 
Acid-regulating  devices,  88,  122 
Acidity  of  mineral  waters,  211 
Acidulae,  66 

Acton  spring  water,  21,  72 
"  Aerate-cool  "  machine,  142 
Aerated  water,  213 
Aeration,  method  of,  128 

of  natural  waters,  28,  31 
Aerial  spirit,  64 
Aesculap  water,  22 
Aix-la-Chapelle  water,  14,   23,  69 

temperature  of,  35 
Aix-les-Bains  water,  23 
Alcohol  in  ginger  beer,  182 
Alkaline  waters,  13 
Alkalinity  of  soda  water,  212 
American     intermittent     system, 

125 
Antimony  in  rubber  rings,  196 

in  syphon  heads,  197 
Apenta  water,  22 
Aperient  waters,  13,  20 
Apollinaris  spring,  28 
water,  29 

Argon  in  mineral  waters,  4,  38 
Arsenic   in    mineral    waters,    23, 

200 

tests  for,  201 
Arsenical  waters,  13 
Artificial  colouring  matters,  210 
Artificial  mineral  waters,  64 

Bergman's,  74,  85 

Paul's,  76 

radio-active,  43,  85 

recipes  for,  73,  75,  82 

Struve's,  36,  79 

sulphurous,  69 

"  Auto-rotary  "    filling    machine, 
163 


Automatic     bottling     machinery, 

162 
Auvergne  hot  springs,  35 


BACTERIA  in  ginger  beer,  181 
soda  water,  205 
Bacterial  impurities,  204 
Bacterioscopic  examination,  203 
Bakewell's  apparatus,  110 
Bareges  water,  23 
Barium  in  mineral  waters,  24 

springs,  13,  25 
Barnet  spring  water,  21 
Barrett's  screw  stoppers,  156 
Barruel's   carbonating  apparatus, 

110 

Bath  water,  gases  in,  37 
imitation,  73 
niton  in,  42 
radio-activity  of,  38 
for  the  table,  31 
temperature  of,  35 
Beddoes  on  factitious  air,  97 
Bellows  used  in  carbonating,  93, 

95 
Bergman's  aerial  acid,  67 

artificial  mineral 
waters,  67,  73 
carbonating  apparatus, 

85 
Berjot's    carbonating    apparatus, 

116 

Berry's  patent  machinery,  149 
Bewley's  mephitic  julep,  75 
Bilin  water,  16 
Black's  fixed  air,  44 
Boston  Spa,  24 

water,  25 
Bottle  washing  machinery,  173 


222 


INDEX 


Bottles,  Codd's,  154 

corking  of,  149 
types  of,  150,  155,  156 
washing  of,  173 
with  patent  stoppers,  153 
Bottling  machinery,  148,  190 
Bouillon-Lagrange,  101 
Bourbonne  water,  35 
Boyle  on  mineral  waters,  71 
Bramah's  machine,  119 
Breweries,  carbon  dioxide  from,  53 
Briggs'  bottling  machine,  149 

pamphlet,  104 

Brighton,  German  Spa  at,  79 
Bromine  in  mineral  waters,  15 
Brownrigg  on  carbon  dioxide,  65 
Burton  at  Mecca,  7 
Butt  el  spring,  41 
Buxton  water,  14,  17,  34 

for  the  table,  34 

gases  in,  4 

imitation,  73 

niton  in,  42 

radio-activity  of,  34 

temperature  of,  35,  37 


CACHAT  spring,  14 
Caldas  thermal  spa,  35 
Cameron's  apparatus,  110 
Carbon  dioxide,  44 
cooling  with,  57 
discovery  of,  44,  64 
from  breweries,  53 
carbonates,  47 
coke,  48 
marble,  53 
natural  sources,  53 
in  natural  waters,  2,  28,  44 

tubes,  51 

liquefaction  of,  49 
liquid,  50 
nature  of,  44 
preparation  of,  47 
properties  of,  40 
solid,  50 
solubility  of,  3,  46 


Carbon,  sources  of,  44 

refrigerating  machines,  57, 142 
Carbonated  water,  95 
Carbonating,   continuous    process 

of,  116 

early  methods  of,  84 
Geneva    process    of, 

103 
intermittent  process 

of,  110,  116 
machinery,  84,  128 
Carbonic  acid  gas,  44 
Carlsbad  water,  imitation,  77 
lithium  in,  16 
Struve's,  80 
temperature  of, 

35,  37 

Cavallo  on  factitious  airs,  75 
Cavendish's  experiments,  84 
Chalybeate  waters,  17 

sulphated,  20 
Cheltenham  Spa,  9 

water,  22 

Clasp  stoppers,  161 
Codd's  bottles,  154 

machines  for,  155, 

162 
Coke  as  source  of  carbon  dioxide, 

48 

Colouring  matters,  210 
Continuous  process  machines,  116 

119,  135 
of  carbonating, 

116 

Copper  in  mineral  waters,  197 
Corking  machines,  149,  150 
Corks,  for  bottles,  153 

wiring  of,  152 
Crown  cork  system,  159 

corking  machines,  160 
Cylinders    for    carbonating,    104, 

128 
portable,  126,  171 

DEAD  SEA  water,  1 
Deleuze   and   Dutilleul's   syphon, 
166 


INDEX 


223 


Dortoii  Spa,  12 
Droitwich  water,  16 
Du  Clos'  examination  of  waters,  72 
Due  de  Chaulne's  agitator,  91,  102 
Duchaiioy's  apparatus,  91 
Dulwich  Spa,  10 
water,  21,  72 

EAU  de  Seltz,  33,  102,  122,  213 
Ems  water,  14 

Struve's,  80 
Epsom  salt,  21,  70,  71 
Spa,  11,  21 
water,  21,  70,  72 

imitation,  73 
£vian  water,  14 

FACHINGEN  water,  20 
Factitious  air,  75,  97 
Faraday's  examination  of  Struve's 

waters,  80 
liquefaction    of   carbon 

dioxide,  50 

Ferguson's  syphon  filler,  170 
Fevre's  packets,  123 
Filling  machines,  148,  190 
Fixed  air,  44,  65 
Foam  heading,  214 
Fountains,  portable,  126,  171 
Eraser's   apparatus  for  collecting 

gas,  54 

Fran$ois'  machine,  114 
French  gasometer,  125 
machinery,  122 
Friedrichshall  water,  21 
imitation,  77 

GAS  sylvestre,  65 

Gases  in  mineral  waters,  2 

Wiesbaden  water,  37 
solubility  of,  46 
Gasometer,  French,  124 

Lavoisier's,  98 
modern,  134 
Gauges  for  carbon  dioxide,  62 

for  testing  pressure,  194 


Generators,  130 

horizontal,  131 

safety,  132 
Geneva    process    of    carbonating, 

103 
German  carbonating  plant,  106 

Spa  at  Brighton,  79 
Gerolstein  water,  29 
Geysers  of  Iceland,  35 
Ginger  beer,  179 

alcohol  in,  182 

bottling  of,  190 

examination  of,  193 

fermentation  of,  180 

manufacture  of,  178 

plant,  181 

yeast,  181 

Grabenb acker  spring,  41 
Grew's   preparation   of  salts,   20, 

70 

Grisy  spring,  39 
Guber  spring,  24 

HALL'S  refrigerating  machines,  57 

Hamilton's  machine,  116 

Hampstead  Spa,  11 

H arrogate  water,  4,  16,  23 

Haygarth's  machine,  93 

Hay  ward-Tyler's 

early  machines,  120 
beam  action  machine,  122 
bottling  machines,  150,  154 
modern  machines,  135 
syphon  machines,  169 
washing  machines,  176 
Helium  in  bath  water,  37 

French  springs,  37 
Wiesbaden  waters,  38 
Helmont's    discovery    of    carbon 

dioxide,  65 

Henry's  carbonating  machine,  92 
Hepatic  air,  69 

water,  76 
Hockley  Spa,  12 
Hoffmann's  Epsom  salts,  71 

views      on      mineral 
waters,  64 


224 


INDEX 


Hog  spring,  41 

Holy  well  at  Mecca,  7 

Morecambe,  5 
wells,  4 

Homburg  water,  19 
Hot  springs,  origin  of,  35,  37 
Howard's  wiring  machine,  152 
Hunyadi-Janos  water,  22 
Hydraulic  bellows,  96 
Hydrogen  sulphide  in  waters,  4,  23 


ILKESTON  water,  24 
Indifferent  waters,  13 
Inert  gases  in  waters,  4 
Intermittent  process  of  carbonat- 

ing,  110,  116 

Iodine  in  mineral  waters,  15 
Iron  in  mineral  waters,  3,  17 

soda-water,  195 
waters,  13,  17 

Ischia  water,  radio-activity  of,  41 
Islington  Spa,  11 
water,  72 

JOACHIMSTHAL  spring,  41 

Johannis  water,  31 

Julep,  Bewley's  mephitic,  75 

KING'S  pamphlet  on  Brighton  Spa, 

78 
Kissingen  water,  15 


LA  BOURBOULE  water,  24 

gases  in,  39 

Lament's  patent  bottle,  155 
Laville  -  Delaplagne's    apparatus, 

110 

Lavoisier's    acid  -  regulating     de- 
vices, 88 
gasometer,  98 
pump,  100 

views    on    carbon    di- 
oxide, 44 
Lead  in  fruit  acids,  198 

mineral  waters,  197 


Leamington  Spa  water,  22 
Lemery's  aperitive  water,  71 
Lemonade,  147,  210,  212 
Leuconostoc  mesenteroides,  206 
Levico  water,  24 
Liquefaction    of    carbon    dioxide, 

49 
Liquefied     gas,    machines    using, 

143 

Lithia  water,  82,  213 
Lithium  in  mineral  waters,  13,  16 
Llangammarch  wells,  25 
Lucca  thermal  spring,  35 
Luchon  water,  23 


MACBRIDE  on  putrefaction,  67 
Macdonell's  corking  machine,  150 
Mache  units  of  radio-activity,  40 
Magellan's  apparatus,  90 
Maizieres  water,  39 
Malvern  water,  27,  34 
Maquer's  washing  device,  101 
Marienbad  water,  20 
Matthews'  generator,  125 
Mecca  holy  water,  7 
Mephitic  air,  74 

julep,  74 

water,  74,  76 

Metals  in  mineral  waters,  195 
Mineral  acids  in  lemonade,  211 
Mondollot  system  of  carbonating, 

114 

Mucinous  fermentation,  205 
Muspratt     on     artificial     mineral 
waters,  36,  77 


NAUHEIM  water,  20 
Neon  in  bath  water,  38 

Wiesbaden  springs,  38 
waters,  4 

Neris-les-Bains  water,  26,  39 
Niton,  estimation  of,  42 

in  mineral  waters,  37 
Nitrogen  in  mineral  waters,  4 
solubility  of,  46 


INDEX 


225 


Noow's    carbonating    apparatus, 

88 

OPEN  hot  springs,  37 

Old  sulphur  well  at  H  arrogate,  4, 

16,  23 

Oxygen,  solubility  of,  46 
Oxygenated  water,  76 
Ozoufs  apparatus,  114 


PAUL'S   artificial   mineral  waters, 

76,  102 

Perrier  water,  32 
Pharmacopoeial    standards    for 
mineral     waters, 

212 
test    for    arsenic, 

201 

Phosphoric  acid  in  lemonade,  212 
Planche's  carbonating   apparatus, 

102 

compressor,  101 
Porla  spring  water,  41 
Portable  "  fountains,"  171 
Potash  water,  82 
Preservatives   in    mineral  waters, 

208 
Pressure  in  bottles,  182 

measurement  of,  193 
gauges,  62 

for  bottles,  193 
Priestley's  carbonating  apparatus, 

86 
imitation   Pyrmont 

water,  68 

sulphurous 

water,  69 

views  on  fixed  air,  68 
Pringle  on  mineral  waters,  68 
Pullna  water,  21 
Pump,  Bramah's,  101 
early,  120 

Hayward-Tyler's,  138 
Lavoisier's,  100 
Planche's,  101 
refrigerating,  58 
M.VV. 


Pumps  for  soda-water  machines, 

136 
Putrefaction,  Macbride's  theory  of 

67,  68 
Pyrmont  springs,  17 

water,  17,  65 

artificial,  66,   68, 
73,  75 

KADIO-ACTIVE  waters,  artificial,  43, 

83 
Eadio- activity  of  waters,  36 

measurement  of,  40 
Kadium  deposits,  37 

in  mineral  waters,  41 
therapeutic      action      of 

42 

Rain  water,  1 
Rakoczy  spring,  15 
Rathbone  Place  water,  84 
Refrigerating  machinery,  57 
Refrigerators,  187 
Riley's  "  Auto-rotary  "  machines, 

163 

generators,  133 
machines  for  screw  stop- 
pers, 157 

pump  and  cylinder,  139 
screw  stoppers,  157 
turbine  brushers,  178 
washing  machines,  177 
Rinsers     of    washing     machines, 

175 

RocheUe  salt,  70 
Rosbach  water,  32 
Roucegno  water,  24 
Royat  water,  16,  24 
Rubber  rings  on  stoppers,  156 

antimony  in,  196 
Rutty  on  mineral  waters,  69 


SACCHARIN  in  mineral  waters,  214 
Sadlers  wells,  1 1 
Sal  polychrestum,  70 
Salts  in  mineral  waters,  69 
Saponine,  214 


226 


INDEX 


Saturation  by  chemical  pressure, 
110 

Sautenay  water,  39 

Savaresse's  bottling  machine,  149 
carbonating   machine, 

112 
syphon,  167 

Scott's  "  Thistle  "  filler,  164 

Screw  stoppers,  156 

Schwalbach  water,  20 

Sea  water,  1 

Sediment  in  mineral  waters,  195 

Seidlitz  salt,  70 
water,  21 

Seidschutz  water,  21 

Seignette  salt,  70 

Seip's  account  of  Pyrmont,  65 

Selterswasser,  33 

Seltzer  water,  artificial,  66,  75,  76, 
82 

Shaw's  artificial  mineral  waters, 
73 

Soda  water,  alkalinity  of,  212 
bacteria  in   203 
bottling,  148 
examination  of,  193 
machinery,  84,  128 
origin  of  name,  76,  77 
pressure    of    bottled, 

193 
pumps,  120,  138,  139 

Spa  at  Brighton,  79 

Spa  water,  19,  66 
artificial,  67 

Sparklet  system,  172 

Spas  and  their  springs,  9 

Spiritus  sylvestris,  64 

Springfield  on  Spa  water,  66 

St.  Anne's  Well,  Buxton,  14 

St.  Galmier  water,  32 

St.  Moritz  water,  20 

St.  Winifred's  Well,  Holywell,  5 

Strathpeffer  water,  23 

Streatham  Spa,  11 

Struve's  apparatus,  107 

artificial  waters,  36,  78 
"  Spas,"  78 


Sulis  water,  31 
Sulphur  in  waters,  4,  69 
Sulphurous  waters,  23 

artificial,  69 
Supersaturator,  141 
Syphon,  165 

modern,  167 

Savaresse's,  167 

structure  of,  168 
Syphon-filling  machine,  169 
Syphon  tubes,  167 


TABLE  waters,  27 
Tansan  water,  31 
Taunus  water,  33 
"  Telluric  "  heat,  36 
Temperature  of  mineral  springs, 

35 

Teplitz  thermal  spring,  35 
Thermal  spring  at  Buxton,  14 

waters,  14 
"  Thistle  "  filler,  165 
Tin  in  mineral  waters,  202 
Trafalgar  Square  water,  2 
Tube  gas,  use  of,  135,  143 
Tunbridge  Wells,  10 

water,  3 
Turbine  brusher,  178 


VENEL'S  "  mineral  spirit,"  66 

Seltzer  water,  66 
Vernaut's  carbonating  apparatus, 

116 
Vichy  water,  15 


WASHING  machinery,  173 

tanks,  174 
Water,  holy,  4 

mineral,  1 

rain,  1 

saline,  2 

sea,  1 

soda,  76,  212 


INDEX 


•227 


Waters,  alkaline,  13 

aperient,  20 

arsenical,  23 

barium,  24 

iron,  17 

sulphurous,  23 
Watt's  hydraulic  bellows,  96 
Wheel  washers,  177 
Wickham's  carbonating  cylinders, 

129 

washing  machines,  174 
Wiesbaden  water,  38 


Wild  yeasts,  182 

Withering' s   carbonating   appara- 
tus, 90 
Wychia  water,  16 


YEAST,  ginger  beer,  181 
wild,  182 


ZEM-ZEM  water,  7 

Zinc  in  mineral  waters,  195 


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Brunner,  R.     Manufacture  of  Lubricants,  Shoe  Polishes  and  Leather 

Dressings.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *3  oo 

Buel,  R.  H.    Safety  Valves.     (Science  Series  No.  21.) i6mo,  o  50 

Bulman,  H.  F.,  and  Redmayne,  R.  S.  A.     Colliery  Working  and  Manage- 
ment  8vo,  6  oo 

Burgh,  N.  P.     Modern  Marine  Engineering 4to,  half  morocco,  10  oo 

Burstall,  F.  W.    Energy  Diagram  for  Gas.    With  Text 8vo,  i  50 

Diagram.    Sold  separately *i  oo 

Burt,  W.  A.     Key  to  the  Solar  Compass i6mo,  leather,  2  50 

Burton,  F.  G.     Engineering  Estimates  and  Cost  Accounts i2mo,  *i  50 

Buskett,  E.  W.     Fire  Assaying I2mo,  *i  25 

Butler,  H.  J.     Motor  Bodies  and  Chassis 8vo,  *2  50 

By ers,  H.  G.,  and  Knight,  H.  G.    Notes  on  Qualitative  Analysis ....  8vo,  *i  50 

Cain,  W.     Brief  Course  in  the  Calculus i2mo,  *i  75 

Elastic  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  48.) i6mo,  c  50 

Maximum  Stresses.     (Science  Series  No.  38.) i6mo,  o  50 

Practical  Designing  Retaining  of  Walls.     (Science  Series  No.  3.) 

i6mo,  o  50 
Theory     of     Steel-concrete    Arches   and    of    Vaulted    Structures. 

(Science  Series  No.  42.) i6mo,  o  50 

Theory  of  Voussoir  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  12.) i6mo,  o  50 

Symbolic  Algebra.     (Science  Series  No.  73.) i6mo,  o  50 

Campin,  F.     The  Construction  of  Iron  Roofs 8vo,  2  oo 

Carpenter,  F.  D.     Geographical  Surveying.     (Science  Series  No.  37.) .  i6mo, 
Carpenter,    R.   C.,   and  Diederichs,  H.     Internal  Combustion  Engines. 

8vo,  *5  oo 

Carter,  E.  T.    Motive  Power  and  Gearing  for  Electrical  Machinery  . .  8vo,  *5  oo 

Carter,  H.  A.    Ramie  (Rhea),  China  Grass I2mo,  *2  oo 

Carter,  H.  R.    Modern  Flax,  Hemp,  and  Jute  Spinning 8vo,  *3  oo 

Cathcart,  W.  L.     Machine  Design.     Part  I.  Fastenings 8vo,  *3  oo 

Cathcart,  W.  L.,  and  Chaffee,  J.  I.     Elements  of  Graphic  Statics 8vo,  *3  oo 

Short  Course  in  Graphics i2mo,  i  50 

Caven,  R.  M.,  and  Lander,  G.  D.     Systematic  Inorganic  Chemistry.  i2mo,  *2  oo 

Chalkley,  A.  P.    Diesel  Engines 8vo,  *3  oo 

Chambers'  Mathematical  Tables 8vo,  i  75 

Charnock,  G.  F.     Workshop  Practice.     (Westminster  Series.). .  .  .8vo  (In  Press.) 

Charpentier,  P.     Timber 8vo,  *6  oo 

Chatley,  H.     Principles  and  Designs  of  Aeroplanes.    (Science   Series.) 

No.  126.) i6mo,  o  50 

How  to  Use  Water  Power i2mo,  *i  oo 

Gyrostatic  Balancing 8vo,  *i  oo 

Child,  C.  D.    Electric  Arc 8vo,   *(/n  Press.) 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE   CATALOG       7 

Child,  C.  T.     The  How  and  Why  of  Electricity I2mo,  i  oo 

Christie,  W.  W.     Boiler- waters,  Scale,  Corrosion,  Foaming 8vo,  *3  oo 

• Chimney  Design  and  Theory 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Furnace  Draft.     (Science  Series  No.  123.) i6mo,  o  50 

-  Water:  Its  Purification  and  Use  in  the  Industries 8vo,  *2  oo 

Church's  Laboratory  Guide.     Rewritten  by  Edward  Kinch 8vo,  *2  50 

Clapperton,  G.     Practical  Papermaking 8vo,  2  50 

Clark,  A.  G.    Motor  Car  Engineering. 

Vol.  I.     Construction *3  oo 

Vol.  II.     Design (In  Press.) 

Clark,  C.  H.     Marine  Gas  Engines i2mo,  *i  50 

Clark,  D.  K.     Rules,  Tables  and  Data  for  Mechanical  Engineers 8vo,  5  oo 

Fuel:  Its  Combustion  and  Economy i2mo,  j  50 

The  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocketbook i6mo,  2  oo 

-  Tramways:  Their  Construction  and  Working 8vo,  5  oo 

Clark,  J.  M.     New  System  of  Laying  Out  Railway  Turnouts i2mo,  i  oo 

Clausen-Thue,  W.     ABC  Telegraphic  Code.     Fourth  Edition i2mo,  *5  oo 

Fifth  Edition 8vo,  *7  oo 

—  The  A  i  Telegraphic  Code 8vo,  *7  50 

Cleemann,  T.  M.     The  Railroad  Engineer's  Practice I2mo,  *i  50 

Clerk,  D.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Theory  of  the  Gas  Engine.     (Science  Series 

No.  62.) i6mo,  o  50 

Clevenger,  S.  R.     Treatise   on   the   Method   of   Government   Surveying. 

i6mo,  morocco 2  50 

Clouth,  F.     Rubber,  Gutta-Percha,  and  Balata .8vo,  *5  oo 

Cochran,  J.     Treatise  on  Cement  Specifications 8vo,  *i  oo 

Coffin,  J.  H.  C.     Navigation  and  Nautical  Astronomy i2mo,  *3  50 

Colburn,  Z.,  and  Thurston,  R.  H.     Steam  Boiler  Explosions.     (Science 

Series  No.  2.) i6mo,  o  50 

Cole,  R.  S.    Treatise  on  Photographic  Optics i2mo,  i  50 

Coles- Finch,  W.     Water,  Its  Origin  and  Use 8vo,  *5  oo 

Collins,  J.  E.     Useful  Alloys  and  Memoranda  for  Goldsmiths,  Jewelers. 

i6mo o  50 

Constantino,    E.     Marine  Engineers,  Their    Qualifications   and   Duties. 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Coombs,  H.  A.     Gear  Teeth.     (Science  Series  No.  120.) i6mo,  o  50 

Cooper,  W.  R.     Primary  Batteries 8vo,  *4  oo 

"  The  Electrician  "  Primers. .. ' 8vo,  *5  oo 

Part  I *i  50 

Part  II *2  50 

Part  III *2  oo 

Copperthwaite,  W.  C.     Tunnel  Shields 410,  *p  oo 

Corey,  H.  T.     Water  Supply  Engineering 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Corfield,  W.  H.     Dwelling  Houses.     (Science  Series  No.  50.) i6mo,  o  50 

-  Water  and  Water-Supply.     (Science  Scries  No,  17.) i6mo,  o  50 

Cornwall,  H.  B.     Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis 8vo,  *2  50 

Courtney,  C.  F.     Masonry  Dams 8vo,  3  50 

Cowell,  W.  B.     Pure  Air,  Ozone,  and  Water i2mo,  *2  oo 

Craig,  T.     Motion  of  a  Solid  in  a  Fuel.     (Science  Series  No.  49.) i6mo,  o  50 

-  Wave  and  Vortex  Motion.     (Science  Series  No.  43.) i6mo,  o  50 

Cramp,  W.     Continuous  Current  Machine  Design 8vo,  *a  50 


8        D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Crocker,  F.  B.     Electric  Lighting.     Two  Volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.    I.     The  Generating  Plant 3  oo 

Vol.  IL     Distributing  Systems  and  Lamps 3  oo 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Arendt,  M.     Electric  Motors 8vo,  *2  50 

Crocker,  F.  B.,  and  Wheeler,  S.  S.     The  Management  of  Electrical  Ma- 
chinery  izmo,  *i  oo 

Cross,  C.  F.,  Bevan,  E.  J.,  and  Sindall,  R.  W.     Wood  Pulp  and  Its  Applica- 
tions.    (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Crosskey,  L.  R,     Elementary  Perspective .8vo,  i  oo 

Crosskey,  L.  R.,  and  Thaw,  J.    Advanced  Perspective 8vo,  i  50 

Culley,  J.  L.      Theory  of  Arches.     (Science  Series  No,  87.) i6mo,  o  50 

Dadourian,  H.  M.    Analytical  Mechanics i2mo,  (In  Press.) 

Davenport,  C.     The  Book,     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Da  vies,  D,  C.     Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining 8vo,  5  oo 

Earthy  Minerals  and  Mining 8vo,  5  oc 

Da  vies,  E.  H.     Machinery  for  Metalliferous  Mines 8vo,  8  oo 

Da  vies,  F.  H.     Electric  Power  and  Traction 8vo,  *2  oo 

Foundations  and  Machinery  Fixing.     (Installation  Manual  Series.) 

i6mo,  (In  Press.) 

Dawson,  P.    Electric  Traction  on  Railways 8vo,  *g  oo 

Day,  C.    The  Indicator  and  Its  Diagrams i2mo,  *2  oo 

Deerr,  N.    Sugar  and  the  Sugar  Cane 8vo,  *8  oo 

Deite,  C.    Manual  of  Soapmaking.     Trans,  by  S.  T.  King 4to,  *5  oo 

De  la  Coux,  H.     The  Industrial  Uses  of  Water.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris. 

8vo,  *4  50 

Del  Mar,  W.  A.    Electric  Power  Conductors 8vo,  *2  oo 

Denny,  G.  A.     Deep-level  Mines  of  the  Rand 4to,  *io  oo 

Diamond  Drilling  for  Gold *5  oo 

De  Roos,  J.  D.  C.     Linkages.     (Science  Series  No.  47.) i6mo,  o  50 

Derr,  W.  L.     Block  Signal  Operation Oblong  i2mo,  *i  50 

Maintenance-of-Way  Engineering (In  Preparation.) 

Desaint,  A.     Three  Hundred  Shades  and  How  to  Mix  Them 8vo,  *io  oo 

De  Varona,  A,     Sewer  Gases.     (Science  Series  No.  55.) i6mo,  o  50 

Devey,  R.  G.    Mill  and  Factory  Wiring.     (Installation  Manuals  Series.) 

I2ttlO,  *I    OO 

Dibdin,  W.  J.     Public  Lighting  by  Gas  and  Electricity 8vo,  *8  oo 

Purification  of  Sewage  and  Water 8vo,  6  50 

Dichmann,  Carl.    Basic  Open-Hearth  Steel  Process i2mo,  *3  50 

Dieterich,  K.     Analysis  of  Resins,  Balsams,  and  Gum  Resins 8vo,  *3  oo 

Dinger,  Lieut.  H.  C.     Care  and  Operation  of  Naval  Machinery izmo,  *2  oo 

Dixon,  D.  B.     Machinist's  and  Steam  Engineer's  Practical  Calculator. 

i6mo,  morocco,  i  25 

Doble,  W.  A.     Power  Plant  Construction  on  the  Pacific  Coast  (In  Press.) 
Dodd,  G.     Dictionary    of    Manufactures,    Mining,    Machinery,    and    the 

Industrial  Arts I2mo,  i  50 

Dorr,  B.  F,     The  Surveyor's  Guide  and  Pocket  Table-book. 

i6tno,  morocco,  2  oo 

Down,  P.  B.     Handy  Copper  Wire  Table i6mo»  *i  oo 

Draper,  C,  H.    Elementary  Text-book  of  Light,  Heat  and  Sound. . .  i2mo,  i  oo 
Heat  and  the  Principles  of  Thermo-dynamics i2mo,  i  50 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S   SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG        9 

Duckwall,  E.  W.  Canning  and  Preserving  of  Food  Products 8vo,  *s  oo 

Dumesny,  P.,  and  Noyer,  J.  Wood  Products,  Distillates,  and  Extracts. 

8vo,  *4  50 
Duncan,  W.  G.,  and  Penman,  D.  The  Electrical  Equipment  of  Collieries. 

8vo,  *4  oo 
Dunstan,  A.  E.,  and  Thole,  F.  B.  T.  Textbook  of  Practical  Chemistry. 

I2H10,  *I    4O 

Duthie,  A.  L.     Decorative  Glass  Processes.     (Westminster  Series.).  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Dwight,  H.  B.    Transmission  Line  Formulas 8vo,   (In  Press.) 

Dyson,  S.  S.     Practical  Testing  of  Raw  Materials 8vo,  *5  oo 

Dyson,  S.  S.,  and  Clarkson,  S.  S.    Chemical  Works 8vo,  *7  50 

Eccles,  R.  G.,  and  Duckwall,  E.  W.     Food  Preservatives 8vo,  paper  o  50 

Eddy,  H.  T.     Researches  in  Graphical  Statics  8vo,  i  50 

—  Maximum  Stresses  under  Concentrated  Loads 8vo,  i  50 

Edgcumbe,  K.     Industrial  Electrical  Measuring  Instruments 8vo,  *2  50 

Eissler,  M.     The  Metallurgy  of  Gold 8vo,  7  50 

-  The  Hydrometallurgy  of  Copper 8vo,  *4  50 

—  The  Metallurgy  of  Silver 8vo,  4  oo 

The  Metallurgy  of  Argentiferous  Lead 8vo,  5  oo 

—  Cyanide  Process  for  the  Extraction  of  Gold 8vo,  3  oo 

—  A  Handbook  on  Modern  Explosives 8vo,  5  oo 

Ekin,  T.  C.     Water  Pipe  and  Sewage  Discharge  Diagrams. folio,  *3  oo 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  and  Storer,  F.  H.     Compendious  Manual  of  Qualitative 

Chemical  Analysis I2mo,  *i  25 

Elliot,  Major  G.  H.     European  Light-house  Systems 8vo,  5  oo 

Ennis,  Wm.  D.    Linseed  Oil  and  Other  Seed  Oils: 8vo,  *4  oo 

Applied  Thermodynamics 8vo  *4  50 

— —  Flying  Machines  To-day I2mo,  *i  50 

Vapors  for  Heat  Engines i2mo,  *i  oo 

Erfurt,  J.     Dyeing  of  Paper  Pulp.     Trans,  by  J.  Hubner 8vo,  *7  50 

Ermen,  W.  F.  A.     Materials  Used  in  Sizing 8vo,  *2  oo 

Erskine-Murray,  J.     A  Handbook  of  Wireless  Telegraphy 8vo,  *3  50 

Evans,  C.  A.     Macadamized  Roads (In  Press.) 

Ewing,  A.  J.     Magnetic  Induction  in  Iron 8vo,  *4  oo 

Fairie,  J.     Notes  on  Lead  Ores I2mo,  *i  oo 

—  Notes  on  Pottery  Clays i2mo,  *i  50 

Fairley,  W.,  and  Andre,  Geo.  J.     Ventilation  of  Coal  Mines.     (Science 

Series  No.  58.) i6mo,  o  50 

Fairweather,  W.  C.     Foreign  and  Colonial  Patent  Laws 8vo,  *3  oo 

Fanning,  J.  T.     Hydraulic  and  Water-supply  Engineering 8vo,  *5  oo 

Fauth,  P.      The  Moon  in  Modern   Astronomy.     Trans,  by  J.  McCabe. 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Fay,  I.  W.     The  Coal-tar  Colors 8vo,  *4  oo 

Fernbach,  R.  L.     Glue  and  Gelatine 8vo,  *3  oo 

Chemical  Aspects  of  Silk  Manufacture 12010,  *i  oo 

Fischer,  E.     The  Preparation  of  Organic  Compounds.     Trans,  by  R.  V. 

Stanford i2mo,  *i  25 

Fish,  J.  C.  L.     Lettering  of  Working  Drawings Oblong  8vo,  i  oo 

Fisher,  H.  K.  C.,  and  Darby,  W.  C.     Submarine  Cable  Testing 8vo,  *3  50 


10     D.  VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Fiske,  Lieut.  B.  A.     Electricity  in  Theory  and  Practice 8vo,  2  50 

Fleischmann,  W.     The   Book  of  the  Dairy.     Trans,  by  C.  M.  Aikman. 

8vo,  4  oo 
Fleming,  J.  A.     The  Alternate-current  Transformer.     Two  Volumes.    8vo. 

Vol.    I.     The  Induction  of  Electric  Currents *5  oo 

Vol.  II.     The  Utilization  of  Induced  Currents. *5  oo 

Propagation  of  Electric  Currents 8vo,  *3  oo 

Centenary  of  the  Electrical  Current 8vo,  *o  50 

Electric  Lamps  and  Electric  Lighting 8vo,  *3  oo 

Electrical  Laboratory  Notes  and  Forms 4to,  *5  oo 

A  Handbook  for  the  Electrical  Laboratory  and  Testing  Room.     Two 

Volumes 8vo,  each,  *5  oo 

Fleury,  P.     Preparation  and  Uses  of  White  Zinc  Paints 8vo,  *2  50 

Fluery,  H.     The  Calculus  Without  Limits  or  Infinitesimals.     Trans,  by 

C.  0.  Mailloux (In  Press.) 

Flynn,  P.  J.     Flow  of  Water.     (Science  Series  No.  84.) i6mo,  o  50 

Hydraulic  Tables.     (Science  Series  No.  66.) i6mo,  o  50 

Foley,  N.     British  and  American  Customary  and  Metric  Measures,  .folio,  *3  oo 
Foster,  H.  A.     Electrical  Engineers'  Pocket-book.     (Sixth  Edition.) 

i2mo,  leather,  5  oo 

—  Engineering  Valuation  of  Public  Utilities  and  Factories 8vo,  *3  oo 

Foster,  Gen.  J.  G.     Submarine  Blasting  in  Boston  (Mass.)  Harbor.. .  .410,  3  50 

Fowle,  F.  F.     Overhead  Transmission  Line  Crossings i2mo,  *i  50 

The  Solution  of  Alternating  Current  Problems 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Fox,  W.  G.    Transition  Curves.     (Science  Series  No.  no.) i6mo,  o  50 

Fox,  W.,  and  Thomas,  C.  W.     Practical  Course  in  Mechanical  Draw- 
ing  i2mo,  i  25 

F°ye>  !•  C.     Chemical  Problems.     (Science  Series  No.  69.) i6mo,  o  50 

Handbook  of  Mineralogy.     (Science  Series  No.  86.) i6mo,  o  50 

Francis,  J.  B.     Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments 4to,  15  oo 

Freudemacher,    P.    W.     Electrical    Mining    Installations.     (Installation 

Manuals  Series-) 12010,  *i  oo 

Frith,  J.    Alternating  Current  Design 8vo,  *2  oo 

Fritsch,  J.    Manufacture  of  Chemical  Manures.    Trans,  by  D.  Grant. 

8vo,  *4  oo 

Frye,  A.  I.     Civil  Engineers'  Pocket-book I2mo,  leather,  *5  oo 

Fuller,  G.  W.      Investigations  into  the  Purification  of  the  Ohio  River. 

4to.  *io  oo 

Furnell,  J.    Paints,  Colors,  Oils,  and  Varnishes 8vo,  *i  oo 

Gairdner,  J.  W.  I.    Earthwork 8vo,   (In  Press.) 

Gant,  L.  W.    Elements  of  Electric  Traction 8vo,  *2  50 

Garcia,  A.  J.  R.  V.     Spanish-English  Railway  Terms 8vo,  *4  50 

Garforth,  W.  E.     Rules  for  Recovering  Coal  Mines  after  Explosions  and 

Fires I2mo,  leather,  i  50 

Gaudard,  J.     Foundations.     (Science  Series  No.  34.) i6mo,  o  50 

Gear,  H.  B.,  and  Williams,  P.  F.    Electric  Central  Station  Distribution 

Systems 8vo,  *3  oo 

Geerligs,  H.  C.  P.     Cane  Sugar  and  Its  Manufacture 8vo,  *s  oo 

World's  Cane  Sugar  Industry 8vo,  *5  oo 

Geikie,  J.    Structural  and  Field  Geology 8vo,  *4  oo 


D.  VAN    NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG      11 

Gerber,  N.    Analysis  of  Milk,  Condensed  Milk,  and  Infants' Milk-Food.    8vo,  i  25 
Gerhard,  W.  P.     Sanitation,  Watersupply  and  Sewage  Disposal  of  Country 

Houses i2mo,  *2  oo 

Gas  Lighting.     (Science  Series  No.  ux.) i6mo,  o  50 

Household  Wastes.     (Science  Series  No.  97.) i6mo,  o  50 

House  Drainage.     (Science  Series  No.  63.) i6mo,  o  50 

Sanitary  Drainage  of  Buildings.     (Science  Series  No.  93.) i6mo,  o  50 

Gerhardi,  C.  W.  H.     Electricity  Meters 8vo,  *4  oo 

Geschwind,   L.     Manufacture    of   Alum   and   Sulphates.     Trans,   by   C. 

Salter 8vo,  *s  oo 

Gibbs,  W.  E.     Lighting  by  Acetylene i2mo,  *i  50 

Physics  of  Solids  and  Fluids.     (Carnegie  Technical  School's  Text- 
books.)    *i  50 

Gibson,  A.  H.     Hydraulics  and  Its  Application 8vo,  *s  oo 

-  Water  Hammer  in  Hydraulic  Pipe  Lines i2mo,  *2  oo 

Gilbreth,  F.  B.     Motion  Study I2mo,  *2  oo 

—  Primer  of  Scientific  Management i2mo,  *i  oo 

Gillmore,  Gen.  Q.  A.     Limes,  Hydraulic  Cements  ar d  Mortars 8vo,  4  oo 

Roads,  Streets,  and  Pavements I2mo,  2  oo 

Golding,  H.  A.     The  Theta-Phi  Diagram i2mo,  *i  25 

Goldschmidt,  R.     Alternating  Current  Commutator  Motor 8vo,  *3  oo 

Goodchild,  W.     Precious  Stones.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Goodeve,  T.  M.     Textbook  on»the  Steam-engine I2mo,  2  oo 

Gore,  G.     Electrolytic  Separation  of  Metals 8vo,  *3  50 

Gould,  E.  S.     Arithmetic  of  the  Steam-engine I2mo,  i  oo 

Calculus.     (Science  Series  No.  112.) i6mo,  o  50 

High  Masonry  Dams.     (Science  Series  No.  22.) i6mo,  o  50 

Practical  Hydrostatics  and  Hydrostatic  Formulas.     (Science  Series 

No.  117.) i6mo,  o  50 

Grant,  J.     Brewing  and  Distilling.     (Westminster  Series.)  8vo  (In  Press.) 

Gratacap,  L.  P.     A  Popular  Guide  to  Minerals 8vo,  *3  oo 

Gray,  J.     Electrical  Influence  Machines i2mo,  2  oo 

—  Marine  Boiler  Design I2mo,  *i  25 

Greenhill,  G.     Dynamics  of  Mechanical  Flight 8vo,  *2  50 

Greenwood,  E.     Classified  Guide  to  Technical  and  Commercial  Books.  8vo,  *3  oo 

Gregorius,  R.     Mineral  Waxes.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter i2mo,  *3  oo 

Griffiths,  A.  B.     A  Treatise  on  Manures I2mo,  3  oo 

—  Dental  Metallurgy 8vo,  *3  50 

Gross,  E.     Hops 8vo,  *4  50 

Grossman,  J.     Ammonia  and  Its  Compounds 12 mo,  *i  25 

Groth,  L.  A.     Welding  and  Cutting  Metals  by  Gases  or  Electricity 8vo,  *3  oo 

Grover,  F.     Modern  Gas  and  Oil  Engines 8vo,  *2  oo 

Gruner,  A.     Power-loom  Weaving 8vo,  *3  oo 

Gtildner,  Hugo.     Internal  Combustion  Engines.     Trans,  by  H.  Diederichs. 

4to,  *io  oo 

Gunther,  C.  0.     Integration I2mo,  *i  25 

Gurden,  R.  L.     Traverse  Tables folio,  half  morocco,  *7  50 

Guy,  A.  E.     Experiments  on  the  Flexure  of  Beams 8vo,  *i  25 

Haeder,    H.      Handbook   on    the    Steam-engine.      Trans,  by  H.  H.  P. 

Powles i2mo,  3  oo 


12     D.   VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Hainbach,  R.     Pottery  Decoration.     Trans,  by  C.  Slater i2mo,  *3  oo 

Haenig,  A.     Emery  and  Emery  Industry 8vo,  *2  50 

Hale,  W.  J.     Calculations  of  General  Chemistry I2mo,  *i  oo 

Hall,  C.  H.     Chemistry  of  Paints  and  Paint  Vehicles i2mo,  *2  oo 

Hall,  R.  H.     Governors  and  Governing  Mechanism I2mo,  *2  oo 

Hall,  W.  S.     Elements  of  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus 8vo,  *2  25 

—  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo  volume  and  a  4to  atlas,  *3  50 

Haller,  G.  F.,  and  Cunningham,  E.  T.     The  Tesla  Coil i2mo,  *i  25 

Halsey,  F.  A.     Slide  Valve  Gears i2mo,  i  50 

The  Use  of  the  Slide  Rule.     (Science  Series  No.  114.) i6mo,  o  50 

Worm  and  Spiral  Gearing.     (Science  Series  No.  116.). , i6mo,  o  50 

Hamilton,  W.  G.     Useful  Information  for  Railway  Men i6mo, 

Hammer,  W.  J.     Radium  and  Other  Radio-active  Substances 8vo, 

Hancock,  H.     Textbook  of  Mechanics  and  Hydrostatics 8vo, 

Hardy,  E.     Elementary  Principles  of  Graphic  Statics i2mo, 


oo 
oo 
50 
50 
50 


Harrison,  W.  B.     The  Mechanics'  Tool-book i2mo, 

Hart,  J.  W.     External  Plumbing  Work 8vo,  *3  oo 

Hints  to  Plumbers  on  Joint  Wiping 8vo,  *3  oo 

Principles  of  Hot  Water  Supply , . . .  8vo,  *3  oo 

Sanitary  Plumbing  and  Drainage 8vo,  *3  oo 

Haskins,  C.  H.     The  Galvanometer  and  Its  Uses i6mo,  i  50 

Hatt,  J.  A.  H.     The  Colorist square  i2mo,  *i  50 

Hausbrand,  E.     Drying  by  Means  of  Air  and  Steam.     Trans,  by  A.  C. 

Wright i2mo,  *2  oo 

Evaporating,  Condensing  and  Cooling  Apparatus.     Trans,  by  A.  C. 

Wright 8vo,  *5  oo 

Hausner,  A.     Manufacture  of  Preserved  Foods  and  Sweetmeats.     Trans. 

by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson 8vo,  *3  oo 

Hawke,  W.  H.     Premier  Cipher  Telegraphic  Code 4to,  *5  oo 

100,000  Words  Supplement  to  the  Premier  Code 4to,  *5  oo 

Hawkesworth,  J.    Graphical  Handbook  for  Reinforced  Concrete  Design. 

4to,  *2  50 

Hay,  A.     Alternating  Currents 8vo,  *2  50 

Electrical  Distributing  Networks  and  Distributing  Lines 8vo,  *3  50 

Continuous  Current  Engineering 8vo,  *2  50 

Heap,  Major  D.  P.    Electrical  Appliances 8vo,  2  oo 

Heather,  H.  J.  S.    Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *3  50 

Heaviside,  O.    Electromagnetic  Theory.      Vols.  I  and  II 8vo,  each,  *5  oo 

Vol.  Ill 8vo,  *7  50 

Heck,  R.  C.  H.    The  Steam  Engine  and  Turbine 8vo,  *5  oo 

Steam-Engine  and  Other  Steam  Motors.    Two  Volumes. 

Vol.   I.     Thermodynamics  and  the  Mechanics 8vo,  *3  50 

Vol.  II.     Form,  Construction,  and  Working 8vo,  *5  oo 

Notes  on  Elementary  Kinematics 8vo,  boards,  *i  oo 

Graphics  of  Machine  Forces 8vo,  boards,  *i  oo 

Hedges,  K.     Modern  Lightning  Conductors 8vo,  3  oo 

Heermann,  P.     Dyers' Materials.     Trans,  by  A.  C.  Wright I2mo,  *2  50 

Hellot,  Macquer  and  D'Apligny.  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Silk  and  Cotton.  8vo,  *2  oo 

Henrici,  O.     Skeleton  Structures 8vo,  i  50 

Bering,  D.  W.    Essentials  of  Physics  for  College  Students 8vo,  *i  60 

Hering-Shaw,  A.     Domestic  Sanitation  and  Plumbing.     Two  Vols. . .  8vo,  *s  oo 


D.  VAN    NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG      1& 

Hering-Shaw,  A.    Elementary  Science 8vo,  *2  oo 

Herrmann,  G.     The  Graphical  Statics  of  Mechanism.     Trans,  by  A.  P. 

Smith i2mo,  2  oo 

Herzfeld,  J.     Testing  of  Yarns  and  Textile  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  50 

Hildebrandt,  A.     Airships,  Past  and  Present 8vo,  *3  50 

Hildenbrand,  B.  W.     Cable-Making.     (Science  Series  No.  32.) i6mo,  o  50 

Hilditch,  T.  P.     A  Concise  History  of  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  25 

Hill,  J.  W.     The  Purification  of  Public  Water  Supplies.     New  Edition. 

(In  Press.) 

Interpretation  of  Water  Analysis (In  Press.) 

Hiroi,  I.     Plate  Girder  Construction.     (Science  Series  No.  95.) i6mo,  o  50 

-  Statically-Indeterminate  Stresses i2mo,  *2  oo 

Hirshfeld,  C.  F.     Engineering  Thermodynamics.     (Science  Series  No.  45.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Hobart,  H.  M.     Heavy  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *4  50 

Design  of  Static  Transformers i2mo,  *2  oo 

Electricity. 8vo;  *2  oo 

Electric  Trains 8vo,  *2  50 

Hobart,  H.  M.    Electric  Propulsion  of  Ships 8vo,  *2  oo 

Hobart,  J.  F.     Hard  Soldering^  Soft  Soldering  and  Brazing i2mo,  *i  oo 

Hobbs,  W.  R.  P.     The  Arithmetic  of  Ehctrical  Measurements i2mo,  o  50 

Hoff,  J.  N.     Paint  and  Varnish  Facts  and  Formulas i2ino,  *i  50 

Hoff,  Com.  W.  B.     The  Avoidance  of  Collisions  at  Sea. .  .  i6mo,  morocco,  o  75 

Hole,  W.     The  Distribution  of  Gas 8vo,  *7  50 

Holley,  A.  L.     Railway  Practice folio,  12  oo 

Holmes,  A.  B.     The  Electric  Light  Popularly  Explained  ....  i2mo,  paper,  o  50 

Hopkins,  N.  M.     Experimental  Electrochemistry 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Model  Engines  and  Small  Boats i2mo,  i  25 

Hopkinson,  J.     Shoolbred,  J.  N.,  and  Day,  R.  E.     Dynamic  Electricity. 

(Science  Series  No.  71.) i6mo,  o  50 

Homer,  J.     Engineers'  Turning 8vo,  *3  50 

—  Metal  Turning I2mo,  i  50 

Toothed  Gearing i2mo,  2  25 

Houghton,  C.  E.     The  Elements  of  Mechanics  of  Materials i2mo,  *2  oo 

Houllevigue,  L.    The  Evolution  of  the  Sciences 8vo,  *2  oo 

Houstoun,  R.  A.     Studies  in  Light  Production i2mo,  *2  oo 

Howe,  G.     Mathematics  for  the  Practical  Man i2mo,  *i  25 

Howorth,  J.     Repairing  and  Riveting  Glass,  China  and  Earthenware. 

8vo,  paper,  *o  50 

Hubbard,  E.     The  Utilization  of  Wood- waste 8vo,  *2  50 

Hubner,  J.    Bleaching  and  Dyeing  of  Vegetable  and  Fibrous  Materials 

(Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry) 8vo,  *s  oo 

Hudson,  O.  F.    Iron  and  Steel.     (Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry.) 

8vo,  (In  Press.) 

Humper,  W.     Calculation  of  Strains  in  Girders i2mo,  2  50 

Humphreys,  A.  C.     The  Business  Features  of  Engineering  Practice .  8vo,  *i  25 

Hunter,  A.    Bridge  Work 8vo,  (In  Press.) 

Hurst,  G.  H.     Handbook  of  the  Theory  of  Color 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Dictionary  of  Chemicals  and  Raw  Products 8vo,  *3  oo 

Lubricating  Oils,  Fats  and  Greases 8vo,  *4  oo 

Soaps 8vo,  *s  oo 


14     D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Hurst,  G.  H.     Textile  Soaps  and  Oils 8vo,  *2  50 

Hurst,  H.  E.,  and  Lattey,  R.  T.     Text-book  of  Physics 8vo,  *3  oo 

Also  published  in  three  parts. 

Part     I.  Dynamics  and  Heat *i  25 

Part   H.  Sound  and  Light *x  25 

Part  III.  Magnetism  and  Electricity *i  50 

Hutchinson,  R.  W.,  Jr.     Long  Distance  Electric  Power  Transmission. 

i2mo,  *3  oo 

Hutchinson,  R.  W.,  Jr.,  and  Ihlseng,  M.  C.    Electricity  in  Mining. .  i2mo, 

(In  Press) 

Hutchinson,  W.  B.     Patents  and  How  to  Make  Money  Out  of  Them.  i2mo,  i  25 

Hutton,  W.  S.    Steam-boiler  Construction 8vo,  6  oo 

Practical  Engineer's  Handbook 8vo,  7  oo 

-  The  Works'  Manager's  Handbook 8vo,  6  oo 

Hyde,  E.  W.     Skew  Arches.     (Science  Series  No.  15.) i6mo,  o  50 

Induction  Coils.     (Science  Series  No.  53.) i6mo,  o  50 

Ingle,  H.     Manual  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 8vo,  *3  oo 

Innes,  C.  H.     Problems  in  Machine  Design I2mo,  *2  oo 

— —  Air  Compressors  and  Blowing  Engines I2mo,  *2  oo 

Centrifugal  Pumps i2mo,  *2  oo 

The  Fan i2mo,  *2  oo 

Isherwood,  B.  F.     Engineering  Precedents  for  Steam  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

Ivatts,  E.  B.    Railway  Management  at  Stations 8vo,  *2  50 

Jacob,  A.,  and  Gould,  E.  S.     On  the  Designing  and  Construction  of 

Storage  Reservoirs.     (Science  Series  No.  6.) i6mo,  o  50 

Jamieson,  A.     Text  Book  on  Steam  and  Steam  Engines 8vo,  3  oo 

Elementary  Manual  on  Steam  and  the  Steam  Engine i2mo,  i  50 

Jannettaz,  E.    Guide  to  the  Determination  of  Rocks.     Trans,  by  G.  W. 

Plympton I2mo,  i  50 

Jehl,  F.     Manufacture  of  Carbons 8vo,  *4  oo 

Jennings,  A.  S.     Commercial  Paints  and  Painting.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo  (In  Press.) 

Jennison,  F.  H.    The  Manufacture  of  Lake  Pigments 8vo,  *3  oo 

Jepson,  G.     Cams  and  the  Principles  of  their  Construction 8vo,  *i  50 

Mechanical  Drawing 8vo  (In  Preparation.) 

Jockin,  W.     Arithmetic  of  the  Gold  and  Silversmith i2mo,  *i  oo 

Johnson,  G.  L.     Photographic  Optics  and  Color  Photography 8vo,  *3  oo 

Johnson,  J.  H.      Arc  Lamps  and  Accessory  Apparatus.     (Installation 

Manuals  Series.) i2mo,  *o  75 

Johnson,    T.    M.      Ship    Wiring   and   Fitting.      (Installation    Manuals 

Series) i2mo,  *o  75 

Johnson,  W.  H.     The  Cultivation  and  Preparation  of  Para  Rubber. .  .8vo,  *3  oo 

Johnson,  W.  McA.     The  Metallurgy  of  Nickel (In  Preparation.) 

Johnston,  J.  F.  W.,  and  Cameron,  C.    Elements  of  Agricultural  Chemistry 

and  Geology I2mo,  2  60 

Joly,  J.     Raidoactivity  and  Geology i2mo,  *3  oo 

Jones,  H.  C.    Electrical  Nature  of  Matter  and  Radioactivity i2mo,  *2  oo 

Jones,  M.  W.     Testing  Raw  Materials  Used  in  Paint 12 mo,  *2  oo 

Jones,  L.,  and  Scard,  F.  I.     Manufacture  of  Cane  Sugar 8vo,  *s  oo 


D.  VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG      15 

Jordan,  L.  C.    Practical  Railway  Spiral i2mo,  Leather,  *i  50 

Joynson,  F.  H.     Designing  and  Construction  of  Machine  Gearing 8vo,  2  oo 

JUptner,  H.  F.  V.    Siderology:  The  Science  of  Iron 8vo,  *s  oo 

Kansas  City  Bridge 4to,  6  oo 

Kapp,  G.     Alternate  Current  Machinery.     (Science  Series  No.  96.) .  i6mo,  o  50 

Electric  Transmission  of  Energy i2mo,  3  50 

Keim,  A.  W.     Prevention  of  Dampness  in  Buildings 8vo,  *2  oo 

Keller,  S.  S.     Mathematics  for  Engineering  Students.     i2mo,  half  leather. 

Algebra  and  Trigonometry,  with  a  Chapter  on  Vectors *i  75 

Special  Algebra  Edition *i  oo 

Plane  and  Solid  Geometry *i  25 

Analytical  Geometry  and  Calculus *2  oo 

Kelsey,  W.  R.     Continuous-current  Dynamos  and  Motors 8vo,  *2  50 

Kemble,  W.  T.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     The  Periodic  Law  and  the  Hydrogen 

Spectrum 8vo,  paper,  *o  50 

Kemp,  J.  F.     Handbook  of  Rocks 8vo,  *i  50 

Kendall,  E.    Twelve  Figure  Cipher  Code 4to,  *I2  50 

Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  and  Thurston,  R!  H.     Kinematics  of  Machinery. 

(Science  Series  No.  54.) i6mo,  o  50 

Kennedy,  A.  B.  W.,  Unwin,  W.  C.,  and  Idell,  F.  E.     Compressed  Air. 

(Science  Series  No.  106.) i6mo,  o  50 

Kennedy,  R.     Modern  Engines  and  Power  Generators.     Six  Volumes.   4to,  13  oo 

Single  Volumes each,  3  oo 

—  Electrical  Installations.     Five  Volumes 4to,  15  oo 

Single  Volumes each,  3  50 

—  Flying  Machines;  Practice  and  Design i2mo,  *2  oo 

—  Principles  of  Aeroplane  Construction 8vo,  *i  50 

Kennelly,  A.  E.     Electro-dynamic  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Kent,  W.     Strength  of  Materials.     (Science  Series  No.  41.) i6mo,  o  50 

Kershaw,  J.  B.  C.     Fuel,  Water  and  Gas  Analysis 8vo,  *2  50 

—  Electrometallurgy.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

The  Electric  Furnace  in  Iron  and  Steel  Production i2mo,  *i  50 

Kinzbrunner,  C.     Alternate  Current  Windings 8vo,  *i  50 

Continuous  Current  Armatures 8vo,  *i  50 

Testing  of  Alternating  Current  Machines 8vo,  *2  oo 

Kirkaldy,  W.  G.     David  Kirkaldy's  System  of  Mechanical  Testing 4to,  10  oo 

Kirkbride,  J.     Engraving  for  Illustration 8vo,  *i  50 

Kirkwood,  J.  P.     Filtration  of  River  Waters 4to,  7  50 

Klein,  J.  F.     Design  of  a  High-speed  Steam-engine 8vo,  *5  oo 

Physical  Significance  of  Entropy 8vo,  *i  50 

Kleinhans,  F.  B.     Boiler  Construction 8vo,  3  oo 

Knight,  R.-Adm.  A.  M.    Modern  Seamanship 8vo,  *7  50 

Half  morocco *o,  oo 

Knox,  J.    Physico-Chemical  Calculations i2mo,  *i  oo 

Knox,  W.  F.     Logarithm  Tables (In  Preparation.) 

Knott,  C.  G.,  and  Mackay,  J.  S.     Practical  Mathematics 8vo,  2  oo 

Koester,  F.     Steam-Electric  Power  Plants 4to,  *5  oo 

—  Hydroelectric  Developments  and  Engineering 4to,  *5  oo 

Koller,  T.     The  Utilization  of  Waste  Products 8vo,  *3  50 

Cosmetics : 8vo,  *2  50 


16     D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Kirschke,  A.     Gas  and  Oil  Engines I2mo,  *z  25 

Kretcnmar,  K.     Yarn  and  Warp  Sizing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Lambert,  T.     Lead  and  its  Compounds 8vo,  *3  50 

Bone  Products  and  Manures 8vo,  *3  oo 

Lamborn,  L.  L.     Cottonseed  Products 8vo,  *3  oo 

Modern  Soaps,  Candles,  and  Glycerin 8vo,  *7  50 

Lamprecht,  R.     Recovery  Work  After  Pit  Fires.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter . .  8vo,  *4  oo 
Lanchester,  F.  W.     Aerial  Flight.     Two  Volumes.     8vo. 

Vol.   I.     Aerodynamics *6  oo 

Aerial  Flight.     Vol.  II.     Aerodonetics *6  oo 

Lamer,  E.  T.     Principles  of  Alternating  Currents I2mo,  *i  25 

Larrabee,  C.  S.     Cipher  and  Secret  Letter  and  Telegraphic  Code i6mo,  o  60 

La  Rue,  B.  F.    Swing  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  107.) .  i6mo,  o  50 

Lassar-Cohn,  Dr.     Modern  Scientific  Chemistry.     Trans,  by  M.  M.  Patti- 

son  Muir i2mo,  *2  oo 

Latimer,  L.  H.,  Field,  C.  J.,  and  Howell,  J.  W.    Incandescent  Electric 

Lighting.     (Science  Series  No.  57.) i6mo,  o  50 

Latta,  M.  N.     Handbook  of  American  Ga's-Engineering  Practice 8vo,  *4  50 

American  Producer  Gas  Practice 4to,  *6  oo 

Leask,  A.  R.    Breakdowns  at  Sea i2mo,  2  oo 

Refrigerating  Machinery i2mo,  2  oo 

Lecky,  S.  T.  S.     "  Wrinkles  "  in  Practical  Navigation 8vo,  *8  oo 

Le  Doux,  M.     Ice-Making  Machines.     (Science  Series  No.  46.) ....  i6mo,  o  50 

Leeds,  C.  C.     Mechanical  Drawing  foi  Trade  Schools oblong  4to, 

High  School  Edition *i  25 

Machinery  Trades  Edition *2  oo 

Lefe'vre,  L.     Architectural  Pottery.     Trans,  by  H.  K.  Bird  and  W.  M. 

Binns 4to,  *7  50 

Lehner,  S.     Ink  Manufacture.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and  H.  Robson  . .  8vo,  *2  50 

Lemstrom,  S.     Electricity  in  Agriculture  and  Horticulture 8vo,  *i  50 

Le  Van,  W.  B.     Steam-Engine  Indicator.     (Science  Series  No.  78.) .  i6mo,  o  50 

Lewes,  V.  B.     Liquid  and  Gaseous  Fuels.     (Westminster  Series.). ..  .8vo,  *2  oo 

Lewis,  L.  P.    Railway  Signal  Engineering 8vo,  *3  50 

Lieber,  B.  F.     Lieber's  Standard  Telegraphic  Code 8vo,  *io  oo 

Code.     German  Edition 8vo,  *io  oo 

Spanish  Edition 8vo,  *io  oo 

French  Edition 8vo,  *io  oo 

Terminal  Index 8vo,  *2  50 

Lieber's  Appendix folio,  *i$  oo 

Handy  Tables .- 4to,  *2  50 

Bankers  and  Stockbrokers'  Code  and  Merchants  and  Shippers'  Blank 

Tables 8vo,  *i$  oo 

100,000,000  Combination  Code 8vo,  *io  oo 

Engineering  Code 8vo,  "12  50 

Livermore,  V.  P.,  and  Williams,  J.    How  to  Become  a  Competent  Motor- 
man I2mo,  *i  oo 

Livingstone,  R.     Design  and  Construction  of  Commutators 8vo,  *2  25 

Lobben,  P.     Machinists'  and  Draftsmen's  Handbook 8vo,  2  50 

Locke,  A.  G.  and  C.  G.     Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid 8vo,  10  oo 

Lockwood,  T.  D.     Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Electro-telegraph  ....  8vo,  2  50 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S   SHORT.  TITLE  CATALOG      17 

Lockwood,  T.  D.    Electrical  Measurement  and  the  Galvanometer .  i2mo,  o  75 

Lodge,  O.  J.     Elementary  Mechanics I2mo,  i  50 

—  Signalling  Across  Space  without  Wires 8vo,  *2  oo 

Loewenstein,  L.  C.,  and  Crissey,  C.  P.     Centrifugal  Pumps *4  50 

Lord,  R.  T.     Decorative  and  Fancy  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  50 

Loring,  A.  E.     A  Handbook  of  the  Electromagnetic  Telegraph i6mo,  o  50 

—  Handbook.     (Science  Series  No.  39.) i6mo,  o  50 

Low,  D.  A.    Applied  Mechanics  (Elementary) i6mo,  o  80 

Lubschez,  B.  J.    Perspective i2mo,  *i   50 

Lucke,  C.  E.     Gas  Engine  Design 8vo,  *3  oo 

-  Power  Plants:  Design,  Efficiency,  and  Power  Costs.      2  vols. 

(In  Preparation.) 

Lunge,  G.     Coal-tar  and  Ammonia.     Two  Volumes 8vo,  *i$  oo 

Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Alkali.     Four  Volumes 8vo, 

Vol.     I.     Sulphuric  Acid.     In  two  parts *i5  oo 

Vol.    II.     Salt  Cake,  Hydrochloric  Acid  and  Leblanc  Soda.  In  two  parts  *is  oo 

Vol.  III.     Ammonia  Soda *io  oo 

Vol.  IV.   Electrolytic  Methods (In  Press.) 

-  Technical  Chemists'  Handbook I2mo,  leather,  *3  50 

-  Technical  Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis.     Trans,  by  C.  A.  Keane. 

in  collaboration  with  the  corps  of  specialists. 

Vol.   I.     In  two  parts 8vo,  *is  oo 

Vol.  II.    In  two  parts 8vo,  *i8  oo 

Vol.  IH (In  Preparation.) 

Lupton,  A.,  Parr,  G.  D.  A.,  and  Perkin,  H.     Electricity  as  Applied  to 

Mining 8vo,  *4  50 

Luquer  L.  M.     Minerals  in  Rock  Sections 8vo,  *i  50 

Macewen,  H.  A.     Food  Inspection 8vo,  *2  50 

Mackenzie,  N.  F.     Notes  on  Irrigation  Works 8vo,  *2  50 

Mackie,  J.     How  to  Make  a  Woolen  Mill  Pay 8vo,  *2  oo 

Mackrow,  C.     Naval  Architect's  and  Shipbuilder's  Pocket-book. 

i6mo,  leather,  5  oo 

Maguire,  Wm.  R.     Domestic  Sanitary  Drainage  and  Plumbing 8vo,  4  oo 

Mallet,  A.     Compound  Engines.     Trans,  by  R.  R.  Buel.     (Science  Series 

No.  10.) i6mo, 

Mansfield,  A.  N.     Electro-magnets.     (Science  Series  No.  64.) i6mo,  o  50 

Marks,  E.  C.  R.     Construction  of  Cranes  and  Lifting  Machinery. .  . .  i2mo,  *i  50 

—  Construction  and  Working  of  Pumps I2mo,  *i  50 

Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel  Tubes I2mo,  *2  oo 

—  Mechanical  Engineering  Materials I2mo,  *i  oo 

Marks,  G.  C.     Hydraulic  Power  Engineering 8vo,  3  50 

—  Inventions,  Patents  and  Designs I2mo,  *i  oo 

Marlow,  T.  G.     Drying  Machinery  and  Practice 8vo,  *5  oo 

Marsh,  C.  F.     Concise  Treatise  on  Reinforced  Concrete 8vo,  *2  50 

Reinforced  Concrete  Compression  Member  Diagram.    Mounted  on 

Cloth  Boards *i  50 

Marsh,  C.  F.,  and  Dunn,  W.     Manual  of  Reinforced  Concrete  and  Con- 
crete Block  Construction i6mo,  morocco,  *2  50 


18     D.  VAN  NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S   SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Marshall,  W.  J.,  and  Sankey,  H.  R.     Gas  Engines.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Martin.  G,    Triumphs  and  Wonders  of  Modern  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  oo 

Martin,  N.    Properties  and  Design  of  Reinforced  Concrete i2mo,  *2  50 

Massie,  W.  W.,  and  Underbill,  C.  R.     Wireless  Telegraphy  and  Telephony. 

i2mo,  *i  oo 
Matheson,  D.     Australian  Saw-Miller's  Log  and  Timber  Ready  Reckoner. 

i2mo,  leather,  i  50 

Mathot,  R.  E.     Internal  Combustion  Engines 8vo,  *6  oo 

Maurice,  W.     Electric  Blasting  Apparatus  and  Explosives 8vo,  *3  50 

Shot  Firer's  Guide 8vo,  *i  50 

Maxwell,  J.  C.     Matter  and  Motion.     (Science  Series  No.  36.) i6mo,  o  50 

Maxwell,  W.  H.,  and  Brown,  J.  T.     Encyclopedia  of  Municipal  and  Sani- 
tary Engineering 4to,  *io  oo 

Mayer,  A.  M.     Lecture  Notes  on  Physics 8vo,  2  oo 

McCullough,  R.  S.     Mechanical  Theory  of  Heat 8vo,  3  50 

Mclntosh,  J.  G.     Technology  of  Sugar 8vo,  *4  50 

Industrial  Alcohol 8vo,  *3  oo 

Manufacture  of  Varnishes  and  Kindred  Industries.     Three  Volumes. 

8vo. 

Vol.     I.     Oil  Crushing,  Refining  and  Boiling *3  50 

Vol.    II.     Varnish  Materials  and  Oil  Varnish  Making *4  oo 

Vol.  IH.    Spirit  Varnishes  and  Materials *4  50 

McKnight,  J.  D.,  and  Brown,  A.  W.     Marine  Multitubular  Boilers *i  50 

McMaster,  J.  B.    Bridge  and  Tunnel  Centres.     (Science  Series  No.  20.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

McMechen,  F.  L.      Tests  for  Ores,  Minerals  and  Metals i2mo,  *i  oo 

McNeill,  B.     McNeill's  Code 8vo,  *6  oo 

McPherson,  J.  A.     Water- works  Distribution 8vo,  2  50 

Melick,  C.  W.     Dairy  Laboratory  Guide I2mo,  *i  25 

Merck,  E.     Chemical  Reagents;  Their  Purity  and  Tests 8vo,  *i  50 

Merritt,  Wm.  H.     Field  Testing  for  Gold  and  Silver i6mo,  leather,  i  50 

Messer,  W.  A.    Railway  Permanent  Way 8vo,  (In  Press.) 

Meyer,  J.  G.  A.,  and  Pecker,  C.  G.     Mechanical  Drawing  and  Machine 

Design 4to,  5  oo 

Michell,  S.     Mine  Drainage 8vo,  10  oo 

Mierzinski,  S.     Waterproofing  of  Fabrics.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and  H. 

Robson 8vo,  *2  50 

Miller,  E.  H.     Quantitative  Analysis  for  Mining  Engineers 8vo,  *i  50 

Miller,  G.  A.     Determinants.     (Science  Series  No.  103.) i6mo, 

Milroy,  M.  E.  W.     Home  Lace-making i2mo,  *i  oo 

Minifie,  W.     Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Mitchell,  C.  F.,  and  G.  A.    Building  Construction  and  Drawing. . .  i2mo, 

Elementary  Course *i  50 

Advanced  Course *2  50 

Mitchell,  C.  A.,  and  Prideaux,  R.  M.     Fibres  Used  in  Textile  and  Allied 

Industries 8vo,  *3  oo 

Modern  Meteorology i2mo,  i  50 

Monckton,  C.  C.  F.     Radiotelegraphy.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Monteverde,  R.  D.     Vest  Pocket  Glossary  of  English-Spanish,  Spanish- 
English  Technical  Terms 64mo,  leather,  *i  oo 


D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S   SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG  19 

Moore,  E.  C.  S.     New  Tables  for  the  Complete  Solution  of  Ganguillet  and 

Kutter's  Formula 8?o,  *5  oo 

Morecroft,  J.  H.,  and  Hehre,  F.  W.     Short  Course  in  Electrical  Testing. 

8vo,  *i  50 

Moreing,  C.  A.,  and  Neal,  T.    New  General  and  Mining  Telegraph  Code,  8vo,  *s  oo 

Morgan,  A.  P.     Wireless  Telegraph  Apparatus  for  Amateurs i2mo,  *i  50 

Moses,  A.  J.     The  Characters  of  Crystals 8vo,  *2  oo 

Moses,  A.  J.,  and  Parsons,  C.  L.     Elements  of  Mineralogy 8vo,  *2  50 

Moss,  S.  A.  Elements  of  Gas  Engine  Design.  (Science  Series  No.i2i.)i6mo,  o  50 

The  Lay-out  of  Corliss  Valve  Gears.   (Science  Series  No.  119.).  i6mo,  o  50 

Mulford,  A.  C.     Boundaries  and  Landmarks izmo,  *i  oo 

Mullin,  J.  P.     Modern  Moulding  and  Pattern-making 12 mo,  2  50 

Munby,  A.  E.    Chemistry  and  Physics  of  Building  Materials.     (Westmin- 
ster Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Murphy,  J.  G.     Practical  Mining i6mo,  i  oo 

Murray,  J.  A.     Soils  and  Manures.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Naquet,  A.     Legal  Chemistry , . .  i2mo,  2  oo 

Nasmith,  J.     The  Student's  Cotton  Spinning 8vo,  3  oo 

Recent  Cotton  Mill  Construction .  , I2mo,  2  oo 

Neave,  G.  B.,  and  Heilbron,  I.  M.    Identification  of  Organic  Compounds. 

i2mo,  *i  25 

Neilson,  R.  M.     Aeroplane  Patents 8vo,  *2  oo 

Nerz,  F.     Searchlights.     Trans,  by  C.  Rodgers 8vo,  *3  oo 

Nesbit,  A.  F.    Electricity  and  Magnetism (In  Preparation.) 

Neuberger,  H.,  and  Noalhat,  H.     Technology  of  Petroleum.     Trans,  by  J. 

G.  Mclntosh 8vo,  *io  oo 

Newall,  J.  W.     Drawing,  Sizing  and  Cutting  Bevel-gears 8vo,  I  50 

Nicol,  G.     Ship  Construction  and  Calculations 8vo,  *4  50 

Nipher,  F.  E.     Theory  of  Magnetic  Measurements 12 mo,  i  oo 

Nisbet,  H.     Grammar  of  Textile  Design 8vo,  *3  oo 

Nolan,  H.    The  Telescope.     (Science  Series  No.  51.) i6mo,  o  50 

Noll,  A.     How  to  Wire  Buildings I2mo,  i  50 

North,  H.  B.    Laboratory  Notes  of  Experiments  in  General  Chemistry. 

(In  Press.) 

Nugent,  E.     Treatise  on  Optics i2mo,  i  50 

O'Connor,  H.  The  Gas  Engineer's  Pocketbook i2mo,  leather,  3  50 

—  Petrol  Ah-  Gas i2mo,  *o  75 

Ohm,  G.  S.,  and  Lockwood,  T.  D.  Galvanic  Circuit.  Translated  by 

William  Francis.  (Science  Series  No.  102.) i6mo,  o  50 

Olsen,  J.  C.  Text-book  of  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,  *4  oo 

Olsson,  A.  Motor  Control,  in  Turret  Turning  and  Gun  Elevating.  (U.  S. 

Navy  Electrical  Series,  No.  i.) I2mo,  paper,  *o  50 

Oudin,  M.  A.  Standard  Polyphase  Apparatus  and  Systems 8vo,  *3  oo 

Pakes,  W.  C.  C.,  and  Nankivell,  A.  T.    The  Science  of  Hygiene.  -8vo,  *i  75 

Palaz,  A.     Industrial  Photometry.     Trans,  by  G.  W.  Patterson,  Jr. . .  8vo,  *4  oo 

Pamely,  C.     Colliery  Manager's  Handbook 8vo,  *io  oo 

Parr,  G.  D.  A.     Electrical  Engineering  Measuring  Instruments 8vo,  *3  50 

Parry,  E.  J.     Chemistry  of  Essential  Oils  and  Artificial  Perfumes ....  8vo,  *5  oo 


20      D.  VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Parry,  E.  J.    Foods  and  Drugs.     Two  Volumes 8vo, 

Vol.   I.     Chemical  and  Microscopical  Analysis  of  Foods  and  Drugs.  *7  50 

Vol.  II.     Sale  of  Food  and  Drugs  Act *3  oo 

Parry,  E.  J.,  and  Coste,  J.  H.     Chemistry  of  Pigments 8vo,  *4  50 

Parry,  L.  A.     Risk  and  Dangers  of  Various  Occupations 8vo,  *3  oo 

Parshall,  H.  F.,  and  Hobart,  H.  M.     Armature  Windings 4to,  *7  50 

Electric  Railway  Engineering 4to,  *io  oo 

Parshall,  H.  F.,  and  Parry,  E.     Electrical  Equipment  of  Tramways.. .  .  (In  Press.} 

Parsons,  S.  J.     Malleable  Cast  Iron 8vo,  *2  50 

Partington,  J.  R.    Higher  Mathematics  for  Chemical  Students.  .i2mo,  *2  oo 

Passmore,  A.  C.     Technical  Terms  Used  in  Architecture 8vo,  *a  50 

Paterson,  G.  W.  L.    Wiring  Calculations i2mo,  *2  oo 

Patterson,  D.     The  Color  Printing  of  Carpet  Yarns. 8vo,  *3  50 

Color  Matching  on  Textiles 8vo,  *3  oo 

The  Science  of  Color  Mixing 8vo,  *3  oo 

Paulding,  C.  P,     Condensation  of  Steam  in  Covered  and  Bare  Pipes     8vo,  *2  oo 

Transmission  of  Heat  through  Cold-storage  Insulation i2mo,  *i  oo 

Payne,  D.   W.    Iron  Founders'   Handbook (In  Press.) 

Peddie,  R.  A.    Engineering  and  Metallurgical  Books i2mo,  *i  50 

Peirce,  B.     System  of  Analytic  Mechanics 4to,  10  oo 

Pendred,  V.     The  Railway  Locomotive.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Perkin,  F.  M.     Practical  Methods  of  Inorganic  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  oo 

Perrigo,  0.  E.     Change  Gear  Devices 8vo,  i  oo 

Perrine,  F.  A.  C.     Conductors  for  Electrical  Distribution 8vo,  *3  50 

Perry,  J.     Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  *2  50 

Petit,  G.    White  Lead  and  Zinc  White  Paints 8vo,  *i  50 

Petit,  R.     How  to  Build  an  Aeroplane.     Trans,  by  T.  O'B.  Hubbard,  and 

J.  H.  Ledeboer 8vo,  *i  50 

Pettit,  Lieut.  J.  S.     Graphic  Processes.     (Science  Series  No.  76.) . . .  i6mo,  o  50 
Philbrick,  P.  H.    Beams  and  Girders.     (Science  Series  No.  C8.) . . .  i6mo, 

Phillips,  J.    Engineering  Chemistry 8vo,  *4  50 

Gold  Assaying 8vo,  *2  50 

Dangerous  Goods 8vo,  3  50 

Phin,  J.    Seven  Follies  of  Science i2mo,  *i  25 

Pickworth,  C.  N.     The  Indicator  Handbook.     Two  Volumes.  .i2mo,  each,  i  50 

Logarithms  for  Beginners I2mo,  boards,  o  50 

The  Slide  Rule i2mo,  i  oo 

Plattner's  Manual  of  Blow-pipe  Analysis.    Eighth  Edition,  revised.    Trans. 

by  H.  B.  Cornwall 8vo,  *4  oo 

Plympton,  G.  W.    The  Aneroid  Barometer.    (Science  Series  No.  35.)   i6mo,  o  50 

How  to  become  an  Engineer.      (Science  Series  No.  100.) i6mo,  o  50 

Van  Nostrand's  Table  Book.     (Science  Series  No.  104.) i6mo,  050 

Pochet,  M.  L.     Steam  Injectors.     Translated  from  the  French.     (Science 

Series  No.  29.) i6mo,  o  50 

Pocket  Logarithms  to  Four  Places.     (Science  Series  No.  65.) i6mo,  o  50 

leather,  i  oo 

Polleyn,  F.     Dressings  and  Finishings  for  Textile  Fabrics 8vo,  *3  oo 

Pope,  F.  L.     Modern  Practice  of  the  Electric  Telegraph 8vo,  i  50 

Popplewell,  W.  C.  Elemsntary  Treatise  on  Heat  and  Heat  Engines. .  i2mo,  *3  oo 

Prevention  of  Smoke 8vo,  *3  50 

Strength  of  Materials 8vo,  *i  75 


D.  VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG     21 

Porter,  J.  R.    Helicopter  Flying  Machine i2mo,  *i  25 

Potter,  T.     Concrete 8vo,  *3  oo 

Potts,  H.  E,     Chemistry  of  the  Rubber  Industry.     (Outlines  of  Indus- 
trial Chemistry) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Practical  Compounding  of  Oils,  Tallow  and  Grease 8vo,  *3  50 

Practical  Iron  Founding i2mo,  i  50 

Pratt,  K.    Boiler  Draught i2mo,  *i  25 

Pray,  T.,  Jr.     Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator 8vo,  2  50 

—  Steam  Tables  and  Engine  Constant 8vo,  2  oo 

—  Calorimeter  Tables 8vo,  i  oo 

Presce,  W.  H.     Electric  Lamps (In  Press.) 

Prelini,  C.     Earth  and  Rock  Excavation 8vo,  *3  oo 

—  Graphical  Determination  of  Earth  Slopes 8vo,  *2  oo 

Tunneling.    New  Edition 8vo,  *3  oo 

Dredging.    A  Practical  Treatise 8vo,  *3  oo 

Prescott,  A.  B.     Organic  Analysis 8vo,  5  oo 

Prescott,  A.  B.,  and  Johnson,  0.  C.     Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis.  .  .8vo,  *3  50 
Prescott,  A.  B.,  and  Sullivan,  E.  C.     First  Book  in  Qualitative  Chemistry. 

i2mo,  *i  50 

Prideaux,  E.  B.  R.    Problems  in  Physical  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  oo 

Pritchard,  0.  G.     The  Manufacture  of  Electric-light  Carbons .  .  8vo,  paper,  *o  60 
Pullen,  W.  W.  F.     Application  of  Graphic  Methods  to  the  Design  of 

Structures i2mo,  *2  50 

—  Injectors:  Theory,  Construction  and  Working '. i2mo,  *i  50 

Pulsifer,  W.  H.     Notes  for  a  History  of  Lead 8vo,  4  oo 

Purchase,  W.  R.     Masonry i2mo,  *3  oo 

Putsch,  A.     Gas  and  Coal-dust  Firing 8vo,  *3  oo 

Pynchon,  T.  R.     Introduction  to  Chemical  Physics 8vo,  3  oo 

Rafter  G.  W.     Mechanics  of  Ventilation.     (Science  Series  No.  33.) .  i6mo,  o  50 

—  Potable  Water,     (Science  Series  No.  103.) i6mc  50 

— .Treatment  of  Septic  Sewage.     (Science  Series  No.  118.). .  . .  i6mo  50 

Rafter,  G.  W.,  and  Baker,  M.  N.     Sewage  Disposal  in  the  United  States. 

4to,  *6  oo 

Raikes,  H.  P.     Sewage  Disposal  Works 8vo,  *4  oo 

Railway  Shop  Up-to-Date 4to,  2  oo 

Ramp,  H.  M.     Foundry  Practice (In  Press.) 

Randall,  P.  M.     Quartz  Operator's  Handbook I2mo,  2  oo 

Randau,  P.     Enamels  and  Enamelling 8vo,  *4  oo 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.     Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  5  oo 

—  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  6  50 

-  Machinery  and  Millwork     . . , 8vo,  5  oo 

—  The  Steam-engine  and  Other  Prime  Movers 8vo,  5  oo 

-  Useful  Rules  and  Tables 8vo,  4  oo 

Rankine,  W.  J.  M.,  and  Bamber,  E.  F.     A  Mechanical  Text-book. . . .  8vo,  3  50 
Raphael,  F.  C.     Localization  of  Faults  in  Electric  Light  and  Power  Mains. 

8vo,  *3  oo 
Rasch,  E.    Electric  Arc  Phenomena.    Trans,  by  K.  Tornberg  .(In  Press.) 

Rathbone,  R.  L.  B.     Simple  Jewellery 8vo,  *2  oo 

Rateau,  A.     Flow  of  Steam  through  Nozzles  and  Orifices.     Trans,  by  H. 

Bo  Brydon 8vo,  *i  50 


22      D.  VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Rausenberger,  F.     The  Theory  of  the  Recoil  of  Guns 8vo,  *4  50 

Rautenstrauch,  W.    Notes  on  the  Elements  of  Machine  Design. 8 vo,  boards,  *i  50 
Rautenstrauch,  W.,  and  Williams,  J.  T.     Machine  Drafting  and  Empirical 
Design. 

Part   I.  Machine  Drafting 8vo,  *i  25 

Part  II.  Empirical  Design (In  Preparation.) 

Raymond,  E.  B.     Alternating  Current  Engineering I2mo,  *2  50 

Rayner,  H.     Silk  Throwing  and  Waste  Silk  Spinning 8vo,  *2  50 

Recipes  for  the  Color,  Paint,  Varnish,  Oil,  Soap  and  Drysaltery  Trades .  8vo,  *3  50 

Recipes  for  Flint  Glass  Making i2mo,  *4  50 

Redfern,  J.  B.    Bells,  Telephones  (Installation  Manuals  Series)  i6mo, 

(In  Press.) 

Redwood,  B.     Petroleum.     (Science  Series  No.  92.) i6mo,  o  50 

Reed's  Engineers'  Handbook 8vo,  *s  oo 

Key  to  the  Nineteenth  Edition  of  Reed's  Engineers'  Handbook . .  8vo,  *3  oo 

Useful  Hints  to  Sea-going  Engineers I2mo,  i  50 

Marine  Boilers 121110,  2  oo 

—  Guide  to  the  Use  of  the  Slide  Valve i2mo,  *i  60 

Reinhardt,  C.  W.     Lettering  for  Draftsmen,  Engineers,  and  Students. 

oblong  410,  boards,  x  oo 

The  Technic  of  Mechanical  Drafting oblong  4to,  boards,  *i  oo 

Reiser,  F.     Hardening  and  Tempering  of  Steel.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and 

H.  Robson i2mo,  *2  50 

Reiser,  N.     Faults  in  the  Manufacture  of  Woolen  Goods.     Trans,  by  A. 

Morris  and  H.  Robson 8vo,  *2  50 

Spinning  and  Weaving  Calculations 8vo,  *5  oo 

Renwick,  W.  G.     Marble  and  Marble  Working 8vo,  5  oo 

Reynolds,   0.,  and  Idell,   F.   E.     Triple  Expansion  Engines.     (Science 

Series  No.  99.) i6mop  o  50 

Rhead,  G.  F.     Simple  Structural  Woodwork 12 mo,  *i  oo 

Rice,  J.  M.,  and  Johnson,  W.  W.     A  New  Method  of  Obtaining  the  Differ- 
ential of  Functions i2mo,  o  50 

Richards,  W.  A.,  and  North,  H.  B.    Manual  of  Cement  Testing. . . .  i2mo,  *i  50 

Richardson,  J.     The  Modern  Steam  Engine 8vo,  *3  50 

Richardson,  S.  S.     Magnetism  and  Electricity i2mo,  *2  oo 

Rideal,  S.     Glue  and  Glue  Testing 8vo,  *4  oo 

Rimmer,  E.  J.    Boiler  Explosions,  Collapses  and  Mishaps 8vo,  *i  75 

Rings,  F.     Concrete  in  Theory  and  Practice I2mo,  *2  50 

Ripper,  W.     Course  of  Instruction  in  Machine  Drawing folio,  *6  oo 

Roberts,  F.  C.     Figure  of  the  Earth.     (Science  Series  No.  79.) i6mo,  o  50 

Roberts,  J.,  Jr.     Laboratory  Work  in  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *2  oo 

Robertson,  L.  S.     Water-tube  Boilers 8vo,  2  oo 

Robinson,  J.  B.     Architectural  Composition 8vo,  *2  50 

Robinson,  S.  W.     Practical  Treatise  on  the  Teeth  of  Wheels.     (Science 

Series  No.  24.) i6mo,  o  50 

Railroad  Economics.     (Science  Series  No.  59.) i6mo,  o  50 

Wrought  Iron  Bridge  Members.     (Science  Series  No.  60.) i6mo,  o  50 

Robson,  J.  H.    Machine  Drawing  and  Sketching 8vo,  *i  50 

Roebling,  J   A.     Long  and  Short  Span  Railway  Bridges folio,  25  oo 

Rogers,  A.     A  Laboratory  Guide  of  Industrial  Chemistry I2mo,  *i  50 

Rogers,  A.,  and  Aubert,  A.  B.     Industrial  Chemistry 8vo,  *$  oo 


D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S   SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG      23 

Rogers,  F.    Magnetism  of  Iron  Vessels.     (Science  Series  No.  30.) . .  i6mo,  o  50 
Rohland,  P.     Colloidal  and  Cyrstalloidal   State  of  Matter.    Trans,  by 

W.  J.  Britland  and  H.  E.  Potts I2mo,  *i  25 

Rollins,  W.    Notes  on  X-Light 8vo,  *5  oo 

Rollinson,  C.     Alphabets Oblong,  i2mo,  *i  oo 

Rose,  J.     The  Pattern-makers'  Assistant 8vo,  2  50 

—  Key  to  Engines  and  Engine-running I2mo,  2  50 

Rose,  T.  K.     The  Precious  Metals.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Rosenhain,  W.     Glass  Manufacture.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Ross,  W.  A.     Plowpipe  in  Chemistry  and  Metallurgy. i2mo,  *2  oo 

Rossiter,  J.  T.     Steam  Engines.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo  (In  Press.) 

Pumps  and  Pumping  Machinery.      (Westminster  Series.) 8vo, 

(In  Press.) 

Roth.     Physical  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  oo 

Rouillion,  L.     The  Economics  of  Manual  Training 8vo,  2  oo 

Rowan,  F.  J.     Practical  Physics  of  the  Modern  Steam-boiler 8vo,  *3  oo 

Rowan,   F.   J.,   and  Idell,   F.   E.     Boiler  Incrustation  and  Corrosion. 

(Science  Series  No.  27.) i6mo,  o  50 

Roxburgh,  W.     Genera!  Foundry  Practice 8vo,  *3  50 

Ruhmer,  E.     Wireless  Telephony.     Trans,  by  J.  Erskine-Murray ....  8vo,  *3  50 

Russell,  A.     Theory  of  Electric  Cables  and  Networks 8vo,  *3  oo 

Sabine,  R.     History  and  Progress  of  the  Electric  Telegraph i2mo,  i  25 

Saeltzer  A.     Treatise  on  Acoustics I2mo,  i  oo 

Salomons,  D.     Electric  Light  Installations.     i2mo. 

Vol.    I.     The  Management  of  Accumulators 250 

Vol.  II.     Apparatus 2  25 

Vol.  III.     Applications i  50 

Sanford,  P.  G.     Nitro-explosives 8vo,  *4  oo 

Saunders,  C.  H.     Handbook  of  Practical  Mechanics i6mo,  i  oo 

leather,  i  25 

Saunnier,  C.     Watchmaker's  Handbook I2mo,  3  oo 

Sayers,  H.  M.     Brakes  for  Tram  Cars 8vo,  *i  25 

Scheele,  C.  W.     Chemical  Essays .  8vo,  *2  oo 

Schellen,  H.     Magneto-electric  and  Dynamo-electric  Machines 8vo,  5  oo 

Scherer,  R.     Casein.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *3  oo 

Schidrowitz,  P.    Rubber,  Its  Production  and  Industrial  Uses 8vo,  *5  oo 

Schindler,  K.     Iron  and  Steel  Construction  Works I2mo,  *i  25 

Schmall,  C.  N.     First  Course  in  Analytic  Geometry,  Plane  and  Solid. 

i2mo,  half  leather,  *i  75 

Schmall,  C.  N.,  and  Shack,  S.  M.     Elements  of  Plane  Geometry.  .  .  .  i2mo,  *i  25 

Schmeer,  L.     Flow  of  Water 8vo,  *3  oo 

Schumann,  F.     A  Manual  of  Heating  and  Ventilation i2mo,  leather,  i  50 

Schwarz,  E.  H.  L.     Causal  Geology 8vo,  *2  50 

Schweizer,  V.,  Distillation  of  Resins 8vo,  *3  50 

Scott,  W.  W.     Qualitative  Analysis.     A  Laboratory  Manual 8vo,  *i  50 

Scribner,  J.  M.     Engineers'  and  Mechanics'  Companion  .  . .  i6mo,  leather,  i  50 

Searle,  A.  B.     Modern  Brickmaking 8vo,  *5  oo 

Searle,  G.  M.     "  Sumners'  Method."     Condensed  and  Improved.    (Science 

Series  No.  124.) i6mo,  o  50 

Seaton,  A.  E.     Manual  of  Marine  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 


24     D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S   SHORT  TITLE   CATALOG 

Seaton,  A.  E.,  and  Rounthwaite,  H.  M.     Pocket-book  of  Marine  Engineer- 
ing  i6mo,  leather,  3  oo 

Seeligmann,  T.,  Torrilhon,  G.  L.,  and  Falconnet,  H.     India  Rubber  and 

Gutta  Percha.     Trans,  by  J.  G.  Mclntosh 8vo,  *5  oo 

Seidell,  A.     Solubilities  of  Inorganic  and  Organic  Substances 8vo,  *3  oo 

Sellew,  W.  H.     Steel  Rails 4to  (In  Press.) 

Senter,  G.     Outlines  of  Physical  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  75 

Textbook  of  Inorganic  Chemistry i2mo,  *i  75 

Sever,  G.  F.     Electric  Engineering  Experiments 8vo,  boards,  *i  oo 

Sever,  G.  F.,  and  Townsend,  F.     Laboratory  and  Factory  Tests  in  Electrical, 

Engineering 8vo,  *2  50 

Sewall,  C.  H.     Wireless  Telegraphy 8vo,  *2  oo 

Lessons  in  Telegraphy i2mo,  *i  oo 

Sewell,  T.     Elements  of  Electrical  Engineering 8vo,  *3  oo 

The  Construction  of  Dynamos 8mo,  *3  oo 

Sexton,  A.  H.     Fuel  and  Refractory  Materials i2mo,  *2  50 

Chemistry  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering I2mo,  *2  50 

Alloys  (Non-Ferrous) 8vo,  *3  oo 

The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  *6  50 

Seymour,  A.     Practical  Lithography 8vo,  *2  50 

Modern  Printing  Inks 8vo,  *2  oo 

Shaw,  Henry  S.  H.    Mechanical  Integrators.     (Science  Series  No.  83.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Shaw,  P.  E.     Course  of  Practical  Magnetism  and  Electricity 8vo,  *i  oo 

Shaw,  S.     History  of  the  Staffordshire  Potteries 8vo,  *3  oo 

Chemistry  of  Compounds  Used  in  Porcelain  Manufacture 8vo,  *5  oo 

Shaw,  W.  N.    Forecasting  Weather 8vo,  *3  50 

Sheldon,  S.,  and  Hausmann,  E.    Direct  Current  Machines i2mo,  *2  50 

Alternating  Current  Machines i2mo,  *2  50 

Sheldon,  S.,  and  Hausmann,  E.     Electric  Traction  and  Transmission 

Engineering i2mo,  *2  50 

Sherriff,  F.  F.     Oil  Merchants'  Manual i2mo,  *3  50 

Shields,  J.  E.     Notes  on  Engineering  Construction i2mo,  i  50 

Shock,  W.  H.     Steam  Boilers 4to,  half  morocco,  15  oo 

Shreve,  S.  H.     Strength  of  Bridges  and  Roofs 8vo,  3  50 

Shunk,  W.  F.     The  Field  Engineer I2mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Appleton,  H.  A.    Handbook  of  Soap  Manufacture. 

8vo,  *3  oo 

Simmons,  W.  H.,  and  Mitchell,  C.  A.    Edible  Fats  and  Oils 8vo,  *3  oo 

Simms,  F.  W.     The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Leveling 8vo,  2  50 

Practical  Tunneling 8vo,  7  50 

Simpson,  G.    The  Naval  Constructor i2mo,  morocco,  *5  oo 

Simpson,  W.    Foundations 8vo,    (In  Press.) 

Sinclair,  A.     Development  of  the  Locomotive  Engine  . . .  8vo,  half  leather,  5  oo 

Twentieth  Century  Locomotive 8vo,  half  leather,  *5  oo 

Sindall,  R.  W.,  and  Bacon,  W.  N.     The  Testing  of  Wood  Pulp 8vo, .  .  *2  50 

Sindall,  R.  W.     Manufacture  of  Paper.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Sloane,  T.  O'C.     Elementary  Electrical  Calculations I2mo,  *2  oo 

Smith,  C.  A.  M.     Handbook  of  Testing,  MATERIALS 8vo,  *2  50 

Smith,  C.  A.  M.,  and  Warren,  A.  G.    New  Steam  Tables 8vo, 

Smith,  C.  F.     Practical  Alternating  Currents  and  Testing 8vo,  *2  50 


D.  VAN    NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S   SHOUT  TITLE   CATALOG     25 

Smith,  C.  F.     Practical  Testing  of  Dynamos  and  Motors 8vo,  *2  oo 

Smith,  F.  E.     Handbook  of  General  Instruction  for  Mechanics.  .  .  .i2mo,  i  50 

Smith,  J.  C.     Manufacture  of  Paint 8vo,  *3  oo 

Smith,  R.  H.    Principles  of  Machine  Work i2mo,  *3  oo 

Elements  of  Machine  Work i2mo,  *2  oo 

Smith,  W.     Chemistry  of  Hat  Manufacturing I2mo,  *3  oo 

Snell,  A.  T.     Electric  Motive  Power 8vo,  *4  oo 

Snow,  W.  G.     Pocketbook  of  Steam  Heating  and  Ventilation.    (In  Press.) 
Snow,  W.  G.,  and  Nolan,  T.     Ventilation  of  Buildings.     (Science  Series 

No.  5.) i6mo,  o  50 

Soddy,  F.     Radioactivity -. 8vo,  *3  oo 

Solomon,  M.     Electric  Lamps.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Sothern,  J.  W.     The  Marine  Steam  Turbine 8vo,  *5  oo 

Southcombe,  J.  E.    Paints,  Oils  and  Varnishes.     (Outlines  of  Indus- 
trial Chemistry.) 8vo,  (In  Press.) 

Soxhlet,  D.  H.     Dyeing  and  Staining  Marble.     Trans,  by  A.  Morris  and 

H.  Robson 8vo,  *2  50 

Spang,  H.  W.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  Lightning  Protection i2mo,  i  oo 

Spangenburg,    L.     Fatigue    of    Metals.     Translated    by    S.    H.    Shreve. 

(Science  Series  No.  23.) i6mo,  o  50 

Specht,  G.  J.,  Hardy,  A.  S.,  McMaster,  J.B  .,  and  Walling.     Topographical 

Surveying.     (Science  Series  No.  72.) i6mo,  o  50 

Speyers,  C.  L.     Text-book  of  Physical  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  25 

Stahl,  A.  W.     Transmission  of  Power.     (Science  Series  No.  28.) . . .  i6mo, 

Stahl,  A.  W.,  and  Woods,  A.  T.     Elementary  Mechanism. i2mo,  *2  oo 

Staley,  C.,  and  Pierson,  G.  S.     The  Separate  System  of  Sewerage 8vo,  *3  oo 

Standage,  H.  C.     Leatherworkers'  Manual 8vo,  *3  50 

Sealing  Waxes,  Wafers,  and  Other  Adhesives 8vo,  *2  oo 

Agglutinants  of  all  Kinds  for  all  Purposes I2mo}  *3  50 

Stansbie,  J.  H.     Iron  and  Steel.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Steadman,  F.  M.     Unit  Photography  and  Actinometry (In  Press.) 

Steinman,  D.  B.     Suspension  Bridges  and  Cantilevers.     (Science  Series 

No.  127) o  50 

Stevens,  H.  P.    Paper  Mill  Chemist i6mo,  *2  50 

Stevenson,  J.  L.     Blast-Furnace  Calculations. I2mo,  leather,  *2  oo 

Stewart,  A.     Modern  Polyphase  Machinery i2mo,  *2  oo 

Stewart,  G.     Modern  Steam  Traps I2mo,  *i  25 

Stiles,  A.     Tables  for  Field  Engineers. i2mo,  i  oo 

Stillman,  P.     Steam-engine  Indicator I2mo,  i  oo 

Stodola,  A.     Steam  Turbines.     Trans,  by  L.  C.  Loewenstein 8vo,  *$  oo 

Stone,  H.     The  Timbers  of  Commerce 8vo,  3  50 

Stone,  Gen.  R.    New  Roads  and  Road  Laws I2mo,  i  oo 

Stopes,  M.     Ancient  Plants 8vo,  *2  oo 

The  Study  of  Plant  Life 8vo,  *2  oo 

Stumpf,  Prof.     Una-Flow  of  Steam  Engine 4to,  *3  50 

Sudborough,  J.  J.,  and  James,  T.  C.     Practical  Organic  Chemistry. .  i2mo,  *2  oo 

Suffling,  E.  R.     Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Glass  Painting 8vo,  *3  50 

Suggate,  A.     Elements  of  Engineering  Estimating I2mo, 

Swan,  K.     Patents,  Designs  and  Trade  Marks.      (Westminster  Series.). 

8vo,  *2  oo 

Sweet,  S.  H.     Special  Report  on  Coal 8vo,  3  oo 


26     D.  VAN   NOSTRAND   COMPANY'S   SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Swinburne,  J.,  Wordingham,  C.  H.,  and  Martin,  T.  C.     Eletcric  Currents. 

(Science  Series  No.  109.) i6mo,  o  50 

Swoope,  C.  W.     Practical  Lessons  in  Electricity i2mo,  *2  oo 

Tailfer,  L.     Bleaching  Linen  and  Cotton  Yarn  and  Fabrics. . , , 8vo,  *5  oo 

Tate,  J.  S.     Surcharged  and  Different  Forms  of  Retaining-walls.     (Science 

Series  No.  7.) i6mo,  o  50 

Taylor,  E.  N.     Small  Water  Supplies i2mo,  *2  oo 

Templeton,  W.     Practical  Mechanic's  Workshop  Companion. 

i2mo,  morocco,  2  oo 
Terry,  H.  L.     India  Rubber  and  its  Manufacture.     (Westminster  Series.) 

8vo,  *2  oo 
Thayer,  H.  R.    Structural  Design.    8vo. 

Vol.     I.    Elements  of  Structural  Design *2  oo 

Vol.    H.    Design  of  Simple  Structures (In  Preparation.) 

Vol.  III.    Design  of  Advanced  Structures (In  Preparation.) 

Thiess,  J.  B.  and  Joy,  G.  A.    Toll  Telephone  Practice 8vo,  *3  50 

Thorn,  C.,  and  Jones,  W.  H.     Telegraphic  Connections oblong  i2mo,  i  50 

Thomas,  C.  W.    Paper-makers*  Handbook (In  Press.) 

Thompson,  A.  B.     Oil  Fields  of  Russia 410,  *7  50 

Petroleum  Mining  and  Oil  Field  Development 8vo,  *5  oo 

Thompson,  E.  P.     How  to  Make  Inventions 8vo,  o  50 

Thompson,  S.  P.     Dynamo  Electric  Machines.     (Science  Series  No.  75.) 

i6mo,  o  50 

Thompson,  W.  P.     Handbook  of  Patent  Law  of  All  Countries i6mo,  i  50 

Thomson,  G.  S.    Milk  and  Cream  Testing i2mo,  *i  75 

Modern  Sanitary  Engineering,  House  Drainage,  etc 8vo,  *3  oo 

Thornley,  T.     Cotton  Combing  Machines 8vo,  *3  oo 

Cotton  Spinning.     8vo. 

First  Year , *l  50 

Second  Year *a  50 

Third  Year *2  50 

Thurso,  J.  W.     Modern  Turbine  Practice 8vo,  *4  oo 

Tidy,  C.  Meymott.     Treatment  of  Sewage.     (Science  Series  No.  94.).  i6mo,  o  50 

Tinney,  W.  H.    Gold-mining  Machinery 8vo,  *3  oo 

Titherley,  A.  W.     Laboratory  Course  of  Organic  Chemistry 8vo,  *2  oo 

Toch,  M.     Chemistry  and  Technology  of  Mixed  Paints 8vo,  *3  oo 

Materials  for  Permanent  Painting I2mo,  *2  oo 

Todd,  J.,  and  Whall,  W.  B.     Practical  Seamanship 8vo,  *7  50 

Tonge,  J.     Coal.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Townsend,  F.     Alternating  Current  Engineering 8vo,  boards  *o  75 

Townsend,  J.     lonization  of  Gases  by  Collision 8vo,  *i  25 

Transactions  of  the  Amerkan  Institute  of  Chemical  Engineers.     8vo. 

Vol.     I.     1908 *6  oo 

Vol.    II.     1909 *6  oo 

Vol.  IH.     1910 *6  oo 

Vol.  IV.    1911 *6  oo 

Traverse  Tables.     (Science  Series  No.  115.) i6mo,  o  50 

morocco,  i  oo 
Trinks,  W.,  and  Housum,  C.    Shaft  Governors.     (Science  Series  No.  122.) 

i6mo,  o  50 


D.   VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S   SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG    27 

Trowbridge,  W.  P.     Turbine  Wheels.     (Science  Series  No.  44.) i6mo,  o  50 

Tucker,  J.  H.     A  Manual  of  Sugar  Analysis 8vo,  3  50 

Tumlirz,  0.     Potential.     Trans,  by  D.  Robertson I2mo,  i  25 

Tunner,  P.  A.     Treatise  on  Roll-turning.     Trans,  by  J.  B.  Pearse. 

8vo,  text  and  folio  atlas,  10  oo 

Turbayne,  A.  A.     Alphabets  and  Numerals 4to,  2  oo 

Turnbull,  Jr.,  J.,  and  Robinson,  S.  W.     A  Treatise  on  the  Compound 

Steam-engine,      (Science  Series  No.  8.) i6mo, 

Turrill,  S.  M.     Elementary  Course  in  Perspective izmo,  *i  25 

Underbill,  C.  R.     Solenoids,  Electromagnets  and  Electromagnetic  Wind- 
ings  I2mo,  *2  oo 

Universal  Telegraph  Cipher  Code i2mo,  i  oo 

Urquhart,  J.  W.     Electric  Light  Fitting 12010,  2  oo 

Electro-plating I2mo,  2  oo 

Electrotyping I2mo,  2  oo 

Electric  Ship  Lighting I2mo,  3  oo 

Usborne,  P.  O.  G.    Design  of  Simple  Steel  Bridges 8vo,  *4  oo 

Vacher,  F.  Food  Inspector's  Handbook I2mo,  *2  50 

Van  Nosrrand's  Chemical  Annual.  Second  issue  1909 I2mo,  *2  50 

Year  Book  of  Mechanical  Engineering  Data.  First  issue  1912 ...  (In  Press.) 

Van  Wagenen,  T.  F.  Manual  of  Hydraulic  Mining i6mo,  i  oo 

Vega,  Baron  Von.  Logarithmic  Tables 8vo,  half  morocco,  2  oo 

Villon,  A.  M.  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Leather  Industry.  Trans,  by  F. 

T.  Addyman 8vo,  *io  oo 

Vincent,  C.  Ammonia  and  its  Compounds.  Trans,  by  M.  J.  Salter . .  8vo,  *2  oo 

Volk,  C.  Haulage  and  Winding  Appliances 8vo,  *4  oo 

Von  Georgievics,  G.  Chemical  Technology  of  Textile  Fibres.  Trans,  by 

C.  Salter 8vo,  *4  50 

Chemistry  of  Dyestuffs.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *4  50 

Vose,  G.  L.  Graphic  Method  for  Solving  Certain  Questions  in  Arithmetic 

and  Algebra.  (Science  Series  No.  16.) i6mo,  o  50 

Wabner,  R.  Ventilation  in  Mines.  Trans,  by  C.  Salter 8vo,  *4  50 

Wade,  E.  J.  Secondary  Batteries 8vo,  *4  oo 

Wadmore,  T.  M.  Elementary  Chemical  Theory 12010,  *i  50 

Wadsworth,  C.  Primary  Battery  Ignition i2mo,  *o  50 

Wagner,  E.  Preserving  Fruits,  Vegetables,  and  Meat i2mo,  *2  50 

Waldram,  P.  J.  Principles  of  Structural  Mechanics I2mo,  *3  oo 

Walker,  F.  Aerial  Navigation 8vo,  2  oo 

Dynamo  Building.  (Science  Series  No.  98.) i6mo,  o  50 

Electric  Lighting  for  Marine  Engineers 8vo,  2  oo 

Walker,  S.  F.  Steam  Boilers,  Engines  and  Turbines 8vo,  3  oo 

Refrigeration,  Heating  and  Ventilation  on  Shipboard 12 mo,  *2  oo 

—  Electricity  in  Mining 8vo,  *3  50 

Walker,  W.  H.  Screw  Propulsion 8vo,  o  75 

Wallis-Tayler,  A.  J.  Bearings  and  Lubrication 8vo,  *i  50 

Aerial  or  Wire  Ropeways 8vo,  *3  oo 

Modern  Cycles 8vo,  4  oo 

Motor  Cars 8vo,  i  80 

Motor  Vehicles  for  Business  Purposes 8vo,  3  50 


28     D.  VAN   NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG 

Wallis-Tayler,  A.  J.    Pocket  Book  of  Refrigeration  and  Ice  Making.  12010,  i  50 

Refrigeration,  Cold  Storage  and  Ice-Making 8vo,  *4  50 

Sugar  Machinery. i2mo,  *2  oo 

Wanklyn,  J.  A,     Water  Analysis. 12010,  2  oo 

Wansbrough,  W.  D.    The  A  B  C  of  the  Differential  Calculus i2mo,  *i  50 

Slide  Valves I2mo,  *2  oo 

Ward,  J.  H.     Steam  for  the  Million 8vo,  i  oo 

Waring,  Jr.,  G.  E.     Sanitary  Conditions.     (Science  Series  No.  31.). .  i6mo,  o  50 

Sewerage  and  Land  Drainage *6  oo 

Waring,  Jr.,  G.  E.    Modern  Methods  of  Sewage  Disposal i2mo,  2  oo 

How  to  Drain  a  House i2mo,  i  25 

Warren,  F.  D.     Handbook  on  Reinforced  Concrete i2mo,  *2  50 

Watkins,  A.    Photography.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Watson,  E.  P.     Small  Engines  and  Boilers I2mo,  i  25 

Watt,  A.     Electro-plating  and  Electro-refining  of  Metals 8vo,  *4  50 

Electro-metallurgy i2mo,  i  oo 

• The  Art  of  Soap-making 8vo,  3  oo 

Leather  Manufacture. 8vo,  *4  oo 

Paper-Making ,  8vo,  3  oo 

Weale,  J.     Dictionary  of  Terms  Used  in  Architecture I2mo,  2  50 

Weale's  Scientific  and  Technical  Series.     (Complete  list  sent  on  applica- 
tion.) 

Weather  and  Weather  Instruments I2mo,  i  oo 

paper,  o  50 

Webb,  H.  L.     Guide  to  the  Testing  of  Insulated  Wires  and  Cables.  .i2mo,  i  oo 

Webber,  W.  H.  Y.     Town  Gas.     (Westminster  Series.) 8vo,  *2  oo 

Weisbach,  J.     A  Manual  of  Theoretical  Mechanics .8vo,  *6  oo 

sheep,  *7  50 

Weisbach,  J.,  and  Herrmann,  G.     Mechanics  of  Air  Machinery 8vo,  *3  75 

Welch,  W.     Correct  Lettering .  (In  Press.) 

Weston,  E.  B.     Loss  of  Head  Due  to  Friction  of  Water  in  Pipes  . .  .i2mo,  *i  50 

Weymouth,  F.  M.     Drum  Armatures  and  Commutators 8vo,  *3  oo 

Wheatley,  O.    Ornamental  Cement  Work (In  Press.) 

Wheeler,  J.  B.     Art  of  War I2mo,  i  75 

Field  Fortifications I2mo,  i  75 

Whipple,  S.     An  Elementary  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Bridge  Building. 

8vo,  3  oo 

White,  A.  T.    Toothed  Gearing i2mo,  *i  25 

Whithard,  P.     Illuminating  and  Missal  Painting I2mo,  i  50 

Wilcox,  R.  M.     Cantilever  Bridges.     (Science  Series  No.  25.) i6mo,  o  50 

Wilda,  H.     Steam  Turbines.     Trans,  by  C.  Salter i2mo,  i  25 

Wilkinson,  H.  D.     Submarine  Cable  Laying  and  Repairing 8vo,  *6  oo 

Williams,  A.  D.,  Jr.,  and  Hutchinson,  R.  W.     The  Steam  Turbine (In  Press.) 

Williamson,  J.,  and  Blackadder,  H.  Surveying 8vo,   (In  Press.) 

Williamson,  R.  S.     On  the  Use  of  the  Barometer 4to,  15  oo 

Practical  Tables  in  Meteorology  and  Hypsometery -4to,  2  50 

Willson,  F.  N.     Theoretical  and  Practical  Graphics 4to,  *4  oo 

Wilson,  F.  J.,  and  Heilbron,  I.  M.     Chemical  Theory  and  Calculations. 

i2mo,  *i  oo 

Wimperis,  H.  E.     Internal  Combustion  Engine 8vo,  *3  oo 

Primer  of  Internal  Combustion  Engine I2mo,  *i  oo 


D.  VAN  NOSTRAND  COMPANY'S  SHORT  TITLE  CATALOG     29 

Winchell,  N.  H.,  and  A.  N.     Elements  of  Optical  Mineralogy 8vo,  *3  50 

Winkler,  C.,  and  Lunge,  G.     Handbook  of  Technical  Gas- Analysis ...  8 vo,  4  oo 

Winslow,  A.     Stadia  Surveying.     (Science  Series  No.  77.) i6mo,  o  50 

Wisser,   Lieut.   J.   P«     Explosive  Materials.     (Science   Series  No.   70.). 

1 6 mo,  o  50 

Wisser,  Lieut.  J.  P.     Modern  Gun  Cotton.     (Science  Series  No.  8o,.)i6mo,  o  50 

Wood,  De  V.     Luminiferous  Aether.     (Science  Series  No.  85.) ....  i6mo,  o  50 
Woodbury,  D.  V.     Elements  of  Stability  in  the  Well-proportioned  Arch. 

8vo,  half  morocco,  4  oo 

Worden,  E.  C.     The  Nitrocellulose  Industry.     Two  Volumes 8vo,  *io  oo 

—  Cellulose  Acetate 8vo,  (In  Press.) 

Wright,  A.  C.     Analysis  of  Oils  and  Allied  Substances 8vo,  *3  50 

Simple  Method  for  Testing  Painters'  Materials , 8vo,  *2  50 

Wright,  F.  W.     Design  of  a  Condensing  Plant I2mo,  *i  50 

Wright,  H.  E.     Handy  Book  for  Brewers 8vo,  *5  oo 

Wright,  J.    Testing,  Fault  Finding,  etc.,  for  Wiremen.     (Installation 

Manuals  Series.) i6mo,  *o  50 

Wright,  T.  W.     Elements  of  Mechanics 8vo,  *2  50 

Wright,  T.  W.,  and  Hayford,  J.  F.     Adjustment  of  Observations. 8vo,  *3  oo 

Young,  J,  E.    Electrical  Testing  for  Telegraph  Engineers. , 8vo,  *4  oo 

Zahner,  R.    Transmission  of  Power.     (Science  Series  No.  40.) ....  i6mo, 

Zeidler,  J.,  and  Lustgarten,  J0    Electric  Arc  Lamps 8vo,  *2  oo 

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